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By Dr Ralph Richards

Western Australian Institute of Sport

Training plans evolve from general objectives through a series of stages to the most specific objectives. Each level of planning should fit into the next, providing a framework for key program decisions. It’s best to document – i.e. have a written outline – and review your plans from time-to-time to assess what progress has been made. Planning must take into account a number of variables which may, or may not, be under the direct control of the coach. Considerations such as pool access, squad numbers and the characteristics of squad members will differ from one program to the next. However, the process of logically constructing both long-term and short-term programs remains the same. The realisation of those plans will naturally differ from one coach to another based upon individual circumstances.

OVERVIEW

The coach should first have a basis for long-term program decisions – i.e. see ASI’s Multi-Year Age-Group Development Model.

(ASI’s Multi-Year Age-Group Swimmer Development Model provides a good starting reference for long term planning. The model provides a general reference for coaches to effectively plan training based upon age/maturity and desirable training outcomes. However, it should be noted that considerable individual variation may exist from one swimmer to another.)

The coach’s philosophy will shape decisions made at every level of planning, but it’s useful to have a reference guide for several of the major training parameters – i.e. number of training session, volume per session, age/maturation based training objectives, etc.

Start with a yearly (or perhaps a 2/3-year cycle would be more appropriate) calendar and target the important competitions that your swimmers are training for. The coach may need to replicate this exercise for various age-groupings and/or ability levels. For example:

  1. Swimmers only interested in the social and fitness aspects of sport, or…
  2. Swimmers who are very young and still acquiring the background skills/fitness necessary to compete, or…
  3. Age-group swimmers with the potential to reach State qualifying times, or…
  4. Age-group and open swimmers aspiring to compete at the National level.

Next, determine the long-term and medium-term preparation requirements for each training level. These requirements must satisfactorily address the following:

  1. The background requirements needed for swimmers to achieve their goals – i.e. skill, maturation, fitness, competition experience, and…
  2. The intermediate performance goals that lead up to the major objective – i.e. qualifying meets or performance targets.

What improvements will be required to reach the major objectives? Are these performance improvements realistic for the age/ability of swimmers in the squad?

Now, based upon the requirements of each training group, determine the single season objectives. A training season may be 6-7 months for some swimmers, or a complete year for others. The Training Season is sometimes called a MESOCYCLE. The beginning coach may find it difficult to estimate the amount of improvement possible during a season, but experience will help the coach in this regard.

Within each season’s training there may be several intermediate objectives. The period of time a coach devotes to achieving these objectives (which have a fitness or skill base) is called a MACROCYCLE. For example, three fundamentals of every training program are improvement of aerobic fitness, improvement of speed, and improvement of swimming skill – i.e. technique. Attainment of these objectives allows the swimmer to train more specifically to competition objectives. Therefore, specific periods of time during the season must focus on these fundamentals. However, training must never focus so closely on one fundamental so that the others are neglected. Training is always a mixture of several things, usually with a primary focus and a secondary focus. The length of each macrocycle will depend upon the major training objective (some objectives take longer then others to achieve). There is also variation within any group of swimmers that determines each athlete’s ability to absorb and adapt to the training program. Various textbooks suggest that adaptation to specific types of physiological stimuli will take ‘so many weeks’ to achieve. However, because most coaches work with a wide range of ages, maturation levels, and abilities, it would be difficult to suggest that one plan fits all squad members. The length of any adaptation period is also influenced by one’s training background. For example, mature swimmers who maintain high levels of aerobic fitness from one season to the next will not require a long period of general training devoted to improving this capacity.

Within each macrocycle most coaches plan each week’s training as a measurable training unit or MICROCYCLE. Some coaches use slightly smaller units (for example, four days) or somewhat longer units (for example, 14 days) to fit their plans. Each microcycle contains smaller training units, such as individual training days or training sessions. Planning training programs within units of time allows the coach to control the application of the stress-recovery-adaptation sequence of events.

Finally, the coach must plan each training session. Based upon the planning outline each training session will be structured to reflect the desired outcomes within that microcycle, macrocycle, and mesocycle. Every training session will contain these core components:

  1. Warm-up activities that prepare the swimmer for other types of training (these may also address fitness and skill related objectives) and…
  2. Activities specific to one or two primary training objectives (these are training sets designed to achieve some physiological, psychological or tactical objective) and…
  3. Activities that contribute to recovery (this may be the traditional swim-down or a set that contributes to primary or secondary training objectives if they happen to be recovery orientated).

The coach may also wish to include a secondary training set during some (or all) sessions. This type of training set addresses a secondary – i.e. minor – objective. Care must be exercised to construct secondary sets that contribute to the overall session, rather than detract from it.

Training sets are constructed to define a specific training stress. Training sets that target primary objectives must be constructed to a specific intensity and volume consistent with the overall plan. Training sets designed to achieve secondary objectives are usually more varied in their composition and volume.

THE OVERALL FRAMEWORK

The major questions every coach must answer (as reflected in the structure of the training program) include:

  • How long should the training season last – i.e. mesocycle structure?
  • How many pool sessions are appropriate and what am I trying to achieve with this swimmer or group of swimmers – i.e. macrocycle structure?
  • How much training volume and intensity is appropriate to each session (microcycle structure)?

For example, an ‘average’ 10-year-old swimmer can be expected to handle four pool training sessions per week (a range of 3-5 sessions is suggested in the model) of one hour duration (or slightly longer) and accomplish somewhere between 2 and 3.5 kilometres of training during that session. During the course of a season (that may last 30-36 weeks) this swimmer will accumulate 250-500km of training background. The various training outcomes, skill objectives, cognitive and competition objectives are all identified within the Multi-Year Age-Group Swimmer Development Model. However, there may be variation based upon individual ability, maturation, or past training history. Some 10-year-old swimmers will respond more like an 11-year-old and some like a 9-year-old. A young athlete new to the sport may have great physical capacities, but lack the skill components characteristically acquired by others at eight or nine years of age. Therefore, the model is used as a sliding reference scale. It should help the coach identify which developmental areas are on track and which are advanced or behind.

A recent extension of the Development Model has been proposed by National Youth Coach, Bill Sweetenham.

(Bill has proposed the concept of "Break Point Volume" to conceptualise the long term training continuum. The concept links the training progression from age-group to mature age training programs. See References.)

The concept of ‘break point volume’ refers to an optimum volume of training, performed at optimum skill level, achieved through participation in a maximum number of training sessions at controlled intensities. It recognises the fact that during the maturation years an increased volume of training can be absorbed by the athlete (providing the training intensity is controlled within certain limits). It’s much harder (although not impossible) to absorb similar training levels later in the swimmer’s career if the proper ‘background training’ does not take place. The key ages are 13 to 15 years of age (± 1 year), with girls generally responding at a slightly younger age than boys. According to the break point volume concept these five factors are critical to the nature of training:

  • Up to and through maturation the quantity of training under aerobic workloads is more important than the quantity of training under ‘high intensity’ workloads (although it’s recognised that all types of training are required in a well-balanced program).
  • After maturation the proportion of ‘quality’ – i.e. at a high percentage of maximum – training with ‘break point volume’ becomes more important to the overall success of the training program.
  • Recovery is always a major concern in the design of training programs.
  • Quality technique and application of skills are vitally important – i.e. at all training intensities.
  • The frequency – i.e. in terms of the number of session and the continuity of those sessions – of training stimulus is important.

The general observation by Sweetenham is that an annual training volume of 2000-2500km should be accomplished over a 42-46 week training season by the time a swimmer reaches his/her physical maturation. This equates to a little over 6km per session over a training plan that averages 8-9 sessions per week. The yearly training volume will remain similar to this in the following years, although the composition of training will change. This concept of training fits within the Multi-Year Development Model that suggests 14-year-old swimmers (± 2 years) should train between 1000-2500km annually over a 40-46 week season. This recommendation is based upon the assumption that all prior levels of fitness and skill attainment – i.e. progressions through younger age-groups – have been satisfied.

TRAINING OBJECTIVES

The planning process outlined above makes reference to ‘training objectives’ at every stage. Successful planning incorporates all of the coach’s conceptual models – i.e. physiological, mechanical, and psychological. The greatest mistake made by swimming coaches is their failure to look at the total picture and keep that picture in perspective with the age (which includes maturation factors) and ability of their swimmers.

Planning a training program for very young swimmers – i.e. most swimmers under the age of 10 years – is therefore very clear, because the primary objectives of training are very narrowly defined. Skill development, aerobic capacity, and having fun are the primary objectives, maintaining natural speed and developing race skills are the secondary objectives. The complexity of the objectives (or lack of complexity in this case) determines the amount of detail that the coach needs to plan. Young swimmers do not require large variation in the training plan form one cycle to the next because their training needs are simple. Good advice for coaches working with very young swimmers is to devote most of your planning to skills and general fitness. Also, learn how to construct many different training sets that may look different, but achieve the same physiological objective.

During the years in which swimmers experience their most rapid physical changes – i.e. the growth spurt and puberty – the complexity of training variables changes. Consolidation of technique and continued increases in aerobic capacity are still the most important objectives, but factors such as muscle strength to body weight ratio, speed and acceleration, and training volume/intensity must also be addressed in the training plan. Yet, there are still training variables that should be held in reserve for older age-groupers and senior swimmers. For example, pre-maturation swimmers will probably increase their aerobic capacity more through growth and appropriate amounts of training at/near their anaerobic threshold than from frequent exposure to MaxVO2 training sets. Young swimmers will improve pure speed – i.e. distances 50m or less – by perfecting technique, neuro-muscular patterning, and core body strength. Large volumes (as a percentage of the total work accomplished) of high intensity – i.e. lactate producing – training sets generally wear the swimmer down. Coaches often overestimate the progress of swimmers from ages 10-12 (± 1 year) and begin to train them like ‘small adults’; resulting in the application of an unrealistic program and possible loss of many swimmers to other sports. This is not to say that high quality sprinting is overlooked, all aspects of the program should remain balanced.

Training objectives for most girls (approximate age 12-13) and boys (approximate age 13-14) begin to change dramatically because their needs are more complex. Provided that earlier training has given these swimmers the correct background – i.e. skills, aerobic capacity, neuro-muscular patterning – there are many new training objectives, which must be included in the coach’s plan. The emphasis on training volume and intensity, and how they interact, must be carefully reviewed at this stage of a swimmer’s career. Anaerobic capacity begins to take on greater importance and subtle changes are brought into the complexity of the training plan. There is still an awareness that maturational changes are incomplete, very few 12/13-year-olds reflect the characteristics of senior swimmers. The coach must be able to recognise signs of maturity and adjust his/her program for both advanced as well as late maturing individuals.

Planning training for most mid age-group swimmers of 14-15 years is closer that of senior swimmers, with the exception that recovery mechanisms are still very robust for the younger swimmers. As a general rule, these ‘middle age-groupers’ (particularly girls) will be able to absorb large volumes of work. Planning the desired emphasis of training volume and training intensity becomes the greatest challenge for the coach. The more talented swimmers will now be getting ready to make the transition to higher levels of competition. At this time the coach must be able to assess if there are significant weaknesses present in the swimmer’s training profile. In fact, at every stage of a swimmer’s development the coach must assess the relative strengths/weaknesses and plan to fill the gaps left from earlier stages or correct potential problems – i.e. before they become limitations for a senior swimmer. Training complexity is again expanded because competition objectives begin to narrow. During the early years of a swimmer’s career there is relatively equal emphasis on the development of all strokes and most competition distances; from the mid-teen years the swimmer begins to specialise more. The coach must respond with more specific programs every year, this requires more detailed planning.

The complexity of objectives in the training program for senior swimmers and/or elite swimmers is enormous. Higher levels of competition create different demands on the swimmer in every aspect of performance – i.e. nutrition, mental skills, strength/ flexibility, physiological preparation, technical preparation, etc.. Although most coaches (particularly beginning coaches) do not train elite level swimmers, the training plans designed for these elite athletes are usually the ones every coach wants to study and emulate. Learning from the success or experience of others is important, but learning why and how those results were achieved is perhaps most important. Almost every elite swimmer can trace his/her training history through a similar process of successfully achieving age related training objectives. Planning, and seeing the whole picture, is the key to a coach’s success.

THE INTEGRATED TRAINING MODEL

The coach can effectively plan training if he/she has a model to follow. The integrated training model conceptualises five ways in which a swimmer’s individual abilities are affected by training. The model directs the coach to plan training activities with:

  1. An ever-present concern for the development and application of optimal stroke technique and competition skills – i.e. pacing, starts, turns, etc.,
  2. The realisation that energy supply comes from three metabolic pathways; each responds to different training demands and all three must be continually developed and maintained,
  3. A knowledge that the impact of physical and psychological stress is interactive, neither can be ignored or separated from the other,
  4. An understanding of the changes which occur within the body as a response to the type and amount of stress – i.e. volume/intensity interactions,
  5. The acceptance of two basic principles (1) stress-recovery-adaptation sequence, and (2) progressive overload.

EARLY SEASON OBJECTIVES

At the start of any season the training objectives are:

  1. To build a solid physiological base from which more specific work can be constructed,
  2. To develop or consolidate the techniques and skills which are appropriate for that age/ability swimmer, and…
  3. To assess a number of general strengths or weaknesses and plan appropriate training strategies.

Stroke technique and skills will be a primary objective during every phase of training, but perhaps more emphasis is placed on these at the start of a season. Increasing aerobic fitness will be the primary physiological objective, with pure speed and race speed as secondary objectives. Therefore, the types of training used most often during the early stages of a season should be aerobic base, aerobic endurance, and critical speed (primary objective); maximum speed and sprint capacity (secondary objectives).

The early season phase of a program might consist of only one or two larger training cycles. For example, the first cycle might be a ‘general’ training period consisting of six smaller – i.e. weekly – cycles of successively increasing training volume. A variation on this might be two weeks of increasing volume, one week reduction in volume – i.e. recovery week – repeated. Once the majority of swimmers begin to show signs of adaptation to general fitness training a second larger cycle (lets call this one an ‘endurance’ training period) would follow. The pattern of increasing the overall training stress during successive smaller units of time – i.e. microcycles – or using a build-up/recovery pattern is repeated. Although ‘endurance’ remains the main focus of the program, the relative amount of each type of training will change to meet the build-up or recovery demands within that cycle. Therefore, in this example ‘early season’ might be defined as 12 weeks of training. Naturally the length of any one phase of the season is dependent upon the length of the total training season and the rate of adaptation – i.e. swimmers having a high level of ‘fitness’ at the start of the cycle may not need a long general/endurance preparation phase. How do we know if the primary and secondary training objectives are being achieved? Repeated testing of various physiological capacities and race times help us to monitor the training program. A practical and useful system is to administer ‘test sets’ that are specific to the training objectives.

(Refer to the publication, "Bill Sweetenham’s Test Sets for Age and Youth Level Swimmers", published by ASCTA.)

Documenting improvements in training and racing performance should give the coach and swimmer confidence that the training plan is working. The coach should also administer relevant tests for each of the secondary objectives. If performance characteristics of secondary objectives decline substantially (in this case of an ‘endurance phase’ of training the secondary objectives are maximum speed and sprint speed), then the coach may have placed too much emphasis on a single type of training. However, it’s also unrealistic to expect top sprint performance when concentrated endurance work remains major focus of training. A swimmer’s speed will be depressed somewhat, but this should respond to the cyclic nature of the training program – i.e. variation in the amount of recovery and sprinting in relation to endurance loads. A simple test of maximum speed, such as 6x25m on a 3-minute interval (easy swimming between efforts), should be administered regularly (even during endurance training periods). Changes in maximum speed are evaluated on the basis of the average time as well as the best time; some coaches vary this test by timing six repeat swims and recording the best four times.

MID-SEASON OBJECTIVES

Mid-season might be loosely defined as the second major phase of the season, consisting of one or more large training cycles. The key to a successful progression in the training program is to maintain all the performance gains of earlier cycles, while building performance gains in other areas. During this phase of the season swimmers will participates in regular competitions. Depending upon the season’s objectives, the coach must plan training around or through these competitions. The characteristic feature of mid-season planning is the way the coach manipulates volume and intensity within the training program. It’s very likely that the training volume from week-to-week is sustained at a volume that is somewhat less than the peak volume reached when ‘endurance’ was the focus. However, the overall training stress during mid-season is usually greater because volume and intensity variables have shifted. The progressive overload principle has been applied by increasing the total loading – i.e. stress – from one week to the next through a period of weeks, and then allowing a reduction in the loading – i.e. a short recovery cycle – to facilitate adaptation. The number of the progressive loading cycles planned will depend upon the ability of swimmers to recover sufficiently on a day-to-day basis. Generally, 2:1, 3:1, or sometimes 4:1 loading patterns – i.e. load: recovery cycles – are used as a basis for planning. Composition of training during a ‘recovery’ cycle must be carefully planned. It’s inefficient to simply rest passively, unless recovering from illness or injury. As a general rule the volume of work during a recovery cycle is set at 50-60% of the volume of previous loading cycles, but the content of the program is such that residual fatigue – i.e. lingering fatigue from one session to the next – is greatly reduced or eliminated. The recovery week will contain fast swimming or quality swimming, as long as the overall amount of stress is reduced.

Mid-season objectives are evaluated from competition results as well as test sets. It’s valuable for coaches to record more information than just an overall race time to assess progress in various technical/tactical areas. Race specific variables such as:

  1. Time from the starting signal until the swimmer’s head passes the 15m mark.
  2. Stroke count and stroke rate during each 25m segment of a race.
  3. Split times to judge pacing.
  4. Turn time – i.e. as the head passes under the backstroke flags until the head passes the same point on the return lap.
  5. Time and distance underwater at the start and off each turn (this is particularly important for breaststrokers).
  6. Finish time – i.e. from the flags to the wall.

Because the intensity of training increases during the mid-season phase, the coach must be acutely aware of how day-to-day training objectives are programmed. There will be several concurrent types of training programmed into each session and sequenced into the microcycle. Some of the training outcomes will produce residual fatigue effects, and if repeated too often these ‘high stress’ training methods may overcome the swimmer’s ability to recover. This is not to say that full recovery is always desirable from one training session to the next – i.e. the progressive overload principle must be applied. However, coaches must monitor short-term recovery while scheduling training loads that will stimulate adaptation to higher levels of performance.

LATE SEASON OBJECTIVES

Naturally, the overall focus of any season’s training is the performances achieved in the end. The final phase of a season consists of at least one larger cycle(s) to conclude the preparation. The final cycle of this phase is known as a TAPER, during which swimmers must be ready to perform to their full potential.

The function of a taper cycle, which may include two, three, four or more weeks, is to allow the athlete’s body to ‘over-compensate’ by:

  1. Increasing rest and opportunities for regeneration of muscle tissue.
  2. Mentally focusing on peak performance.
  3. Allowing adaptations to the mechanisms involved in energy production.

The physiological outcomes during the taper reflect complex training effects. As mentioned earlier, young age-group swimmers should follow a very simple pattern of training objectives. Therefore, it’s probably not necessary for the coach to plan a detailed ‘taper’ for swimmers under the age of 10 years. During the rapid growth years (usually ages 10-12 for girls, possibly a year older for boys) the taper cycle may be more of a rehearsal for future years than a specific benefit to the current state of competition readiness. Swimmers at this age generally recover quickly and completely during a relatively short period of time – i.e. 1-2 weeks, for example. Long taper periods used on junior athletes effectively reduce the amount of ‘training time’ available during the season. It’s better to use the available time – i.e. number of training weeks during the season – to lengthen either the preparation or specific training phases.

Swimmers participating in the full taper process will require progressively more rest during each microcycle of the taper. The coach must be cautious that a reduction in total training volume does not represent the elimination of lower intensity aerobic swimming. Fitness must be maintained throughout the taper. Too great a reduction in aerobic loads may result in the proportion of high intensity swimming becoming too great (as part of the total training load). High intensity or quality swimming must remain in the training program throughout the taper; however, the volume of this high stress work is gradually reduced and recovery between stresses becomes more complete. Although the coach has given detailed attention to stroke technique and race strategy throughout the season, these skills are refined during the taper. Some elements of the training program, such as specific strength training exercises, are eliminated during the taper because the affects of this training should already have been realised. Other elements, such as stretching and mental skills training, continue at the same loading. Key training sets involving high to very-high intensity are either reduced in volume or modified so that recovery between individual swims is enhanced. Swimmers who train twice daily usually progressively reduce (in each week of the taper) the number of training sessions attended. In most cases the early morning sessions are eliminated to allow more rest. This is a good strategy, provided the swimmer doesn’t compensate by staying up late at night or sacrificing the ‘quality rest’ opportunity that a recovery morning presents. In the lead-up to big competitions it’s necessary to be able to swim fast in the morning heats and therefore, complete elimination of morning training sessions may be counterproductive. Because the objectives of a taper are so complex, there are numerous considerations that must be addressed by the coach.

(Two excellent articles appearing in past ASCTA Journals are: "Leave Nothing to Chance" by Bill Sweetenham, and "A Model 14-Day Taper: The Transition from Training to Racing" by David Pyne.)

TRANSITION PERIODS

At the end of a season or championship competition, a transition period exists. Current evidence suggests that complete rest – i.e. no swim training at all – is a less effective option than a specific transition-training program. The greatest stressors during and following a major competition are psychological, not physical. The physiological adaptations made during a season will gradually be lost if no fitness work is done. Therefore, the primary training objective must be to mentally refresh the swimmer while providing a sufficient training load. Remember that once a high level of aerobic fitness is achieved, the training load required to retain minimum race fitness becomes much less. During a post taper period the coach should schedule 1-2 weeks of low intensity aerobic work, mixed with sets of short sprints (the number of sessions per week being 50-60% of the peak season load) as a transition into the next training cycle. The psychological needs of the swimmer may also be satisfied by introducing novel and interesting alternative training activities. If swimmers require a more complete break from the pool, the coach may introduce cross-training as an alternative to limited pool training. Cross-training is non-specific training that includes a variety of sports activities outside the pool. In this context cross-training has two major objectives:

  1. Maintenance of aerobic fitness, and…
  2. Increase in overall muscular strength.

Some caution should be exercised to insure swimmers protect themselves from potential injury in sports where they may not be highly skilled. Otherwise, active participation in other sports will help to refresh the swimmer mentally, and maintain the swimmer physically.

EXAMPLES OF MICROCYCLE PLANNING

It would be impossible to illustrate every combination of training – i.e. based upon age, maturity, ability, and training phase of the season – suitable within a weekly plan. However, based upon the principles outlined in this article a few examples of weekly training plans are presented. The possible composition of individual training sets is infinite and therefore no specific examples are given. The key objectives relevant to training session design are presented as either a major or minor focus of each session plan.

(The reader must look at the design concept of the cycle, rather than the literal illustration. For example, some programs may not have access to the pool on certain days or other programs may use Saturday and Sunday more completely in scheduling sessions.)

Figures 1 to 9 illustrate various planning models typical of a particular training phase for different age swimmers. Note that examples having two rows indicate both morning and afternoon sessions on that day. Definitions of the individual types of training – i.e. Aerobic Base, Critical Velocity, Sprint, Speed, etc. – may vary from one source to another, those used the examples are drawn from a general coaching reference.

(The types of training illustrated in the examples are identified in ASI’s current textbook, Coaching Swimming – An Introductory Manual.)

There are six basic components of training for young swimmers – i.e. Technique & Skills, Aerobic Base, Aerobic Endurance, Maximum Speed, Sprint Speed, and Race Practice – that continue throughout the training year. These variables will be manipulated somewhat during the season to first build endurance (using good technique) and then maintain that endurance with additional speed (using good technique). However, the basic model does not change too much. An additional session may be added during school holiday periods. Training is generally conducted once per day and in the afternoon, but individual circumstances will dictate the exact weekly schedule.

The training components for 10/11-year-old swimmers are basically the same as for younger swimmers, except that the volume and frequency of training will increase. During mid-season the training program can be manipulated to incorporate race practice (usually on Friday night or during the weekend) as part of the regular schedule. As the end of the season approaches, the morning training sessions might be discontinued to allow additional rest. Afternoon sessions are generally more productive than morning sessions; however, if a full day of rest precedes a morning session, then young swimmers will be able to handle the accumulated stress better. During school holiday periods the frequency of morning training sessions may also increase. When competitions extend through Saturday and Sunday the Monday morning session will be rescheduled for mid-week. Remember that swimmers at this age have high energy levels and quick recovery ability, but school and other factors must be considered when planning the training program. There is little or no change to the weekly schedule during the lead-up to a major competition, except that some training volume may be sacrificed to allow more complete recovery between sessions.

During the mid-season phase a pattern of training sessions (see Figure 5) allows two successive sessions – i.e. morning-afternoon of the same day or afternoon-morning of consecutive days – then a break – i.e. either a morning or afternoon’s rest – as the pattern repeats itself. Some coaches prefer to schedule training on the basis of a 10 or 14 day microcycle to allow this stress-recovery cycle to repeat several times. The number of sessions containing more intense work as a primary objective will increase if sufficient endurance is achieved during early season training. During a Taper Period it’s important at this age to keep the overall training volume at a reasonable level – i.e. probably not less than 50% of peak microcycle volume earlier in the season. Training sets that require high sub-maximal or maximal effort are shorter, while the majority of aerobic work is completed at moderate-to-low intensity.

The number and complexity of training sessions increases for older age-group and senior swimmers. Those age-group swimmers who may be slow to adapt to the program, or do not wish to commit to a full-on training load, will probably remain at seven sessions (± 1) per week. It’s not unusual for late developing swimmers to delay the increase in total workload – i.e. as defined by the number of training sessions per week – and still continue to improve performance.

From about ages 14-15 training sets that produce ‘very high’ residual fatigue are introduced into the program. These key sets are always the primary objective of the session. It’s also desirable to achieve high velocity performance from secondary training sets, but the total stress must be controlled (otherwise it becomes the ‘major’ emphasis of the session). Therefore, maximum speed and sprint training may be used effectively as secondary training objectives early in the season and primary objectives during mid and late season. The training patterns illustrated in Figures 7 and 8 will be similar to those used by elite swimmers. The sequencing of successive training sessions is used to build up an overload stress, and then recovery work (or a different training emphasis) is used to reduce the stress and allow adaptation. Although eight or nine sessions per week appears to be a ‘huge’ training load, it’s still part of a career training progression. Accomplished age-group swimmers will have higher training demands to meet when they aspire to elite level competition. Elite swimmers may train 10 or 11 sessions per week, and this does not include specialist gym sessions. As you can see, the complexity of planning appropriate stress-recovery cycles is enormous.

SUMMARY

The discussion of planning has focused on the ‘pool training’ elements of a program. However, many other elements of training and education must be added to the coach’s plan, these include program areas such as strength and flexibility training, mental skills training, self-management skills – i.e. recovery practices, etc. – nutrition and drugs education. Some of these program components may take place away from the pool environment and some will be constantly reinforced as part of regular coach – swimmer interaction. The coach must learn to plan every aspect of the program so that nothing is excluded or neglected. Beginning coaches usually know what should be done, but they sometimes fail to adequately plan so that all aspects of the program are implemented.

References:

Counsilman, J. and Counsilman B. "The Residual Effects of Training" Journal of Swimming Research, Vol. 7 No. 1, 1991 (reprinted in Swimming in Australia, September-October 1999).

Pyne, D. "The Specificity of Training - A Fresh Look at an Old Principle: Using Aerobic Training to Improve both Aerobic and Anaerobic Fitness" Australian Swim Coach (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches Association) Vol. 11, No. 7, 1995.

Pyne, D. "A Model 14 Day Taper: The Transition from Training to Racing" Australian Swim Coach (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches Association) Vol. 11, No. 11, 1995.

Pyne, D. and Goldsmith, W. "Speed Development in Swimmers: Total Condition Training" Australian Swim Coach (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches Association) Vol. 12, No. 3, 1996.

Richards, R. "The ‘Aerobic Base’ Concept (the much talked about, but misunderstood basis for training prescription)" Australian Swim Coach (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches Association) Vol. 12, No. 2, 1996.

Richards, R. "Training for Aerobic Improvements – training at MAXVO2 may, or may not, be the best methodology" Australian Swim Coach (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches Association) Vol. 13, No. 3, 1997.

Richards, R. "ASI Multi-Year Age-Group Swimmer Development Model" Australian Swim Coach (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches Association) Vol. 13, No. 1, 1997.

Richards, R. "Building Conceptual Models: Linking Scientific Principles to Coaching Practice" Swimming in Australia (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches and Teachers Association) Vol. 15, No. 2, 1999.

Sweetenham, B. "Leave Nothing to Chance: A Model for Race Preparation of Advanced Age Group Swimmers" Australian Swim Coach (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches Association) Vol. 12, No. 4, 1996.

Sweetenham, B. "An Endurance Training Progression for Maturation – Elite Level Age Groupers" Australian Swim Coach (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches Association) Vol. 13, No. 6, 1997

Sweetenham, B. "Break Point Volume" Swimming in Australia (Journal of the Australian Swimming Coaches and Teachers Association) Vol. 15, No. 4, 1999.

Tanaka, H. "Effects of Cross-Training: Transfer of Training Effects on VO2Max between Cycling, Running and Swimming" Sports Medicine, Vol. 18, No. 5, 1994.

 

Figure 1 – Microcycle for 10/Under Season Training

(Primary and Secondary Objectives)

Sun

Monday

Tue

Wednesday

Thu

Friday

Saturday
Stroke Technique & Skills

Aerobic Base

1. Max Speed

 Stroke Technique & Skills

Sprint Speed

1. Aerobic Base

2. Max Speed

 Aerobic Endurance

Max Speed

1. Stroke Technique & Skills

 Race Practice Swims with Technique & Skill

Aerobic Base

Figure 2 – Microcycle for 10-11 (± 1 year) Swimmers

Early Season (Primary and Secondary Objectives)

Sun

Mon

Tue

Wed

Thu

Fri

Sat

Rest Day

 Aerobic Endurance

Stroke Technique & Skills

1. Sprint
Aerobic Endurance

Max Speed

1. Stroke Technique & Skills

2. Aerobic Base

 Aerobic Base

Sprint

1. Stroke Technique & Skills

2. Max Speed

 Sprint

Stroke Technique & Skills

1. Aerobic Base

2. Max Speed

 Aerobic Base

Max Speed

1. Sprint

2. Stroke Technique & Skills

Figure 3 – Microcycle for 10-11 (± 1 year) Swimmers

Mid-Season (Primary and Secondary Objectives)

Sun

Mon

Tue

Wed

Thu

Fri

Sat
Aerobic Base

Sprint

1. Stroke Technique & Skills

2. Max Speed

Rest Day

or

Swim Meet
Aerobic Endurance

Stroke Technique & Skills

1. Max Speed

 Sprint

Aerobic Endurance

1. Stroke Technique & Skills

2. Max Speed

 Max Speed

Aerobic Endurance

1. Aerobic Base

 Sprint

Aerobic Base

1. Stroke Technique & Skills

 Race Practice with Good Technique

Aerobic Base

1. Max Speed

Early Season (Primary and Secondary Objectives)Sun

Mon

Tue

Wed

Thu

Fri

Sat
Aerobic Endurance

Max Speed

1. Aerobic Base

Rest

Day

 Critical Velocity

Aerobic Base

1. Stroke Technique & Skills

Technique

Session at

various

speeds
Critical Velocity

Aerobic Base

1. Stroke Technique & Skills

 Sprint

Aerobic Base

1. Stroke Technique & Skills

2. Max Speed
  1. Aerobic Endurance
  2. Aerobic Base
  • 1. Max Speed
    		•  Sprint

    Aerobic Base

    1. Max Speed

    2. Stroke Technique & Skills

    Figure 5 – Microcycle for Girls Age 12 and Boys Age 13 (± 1 year)

    Mid-Season (Primary and Secondary Objectives)

    Sun

    Mon

    Tue

    Wed

    Thu

    Fri

    Sat
    Aerobic Base

    Sprint

    1. Stroke Technique & Skills

    		 Critical Velocity

    Aerobic Base

    1. Max Speed

    		 Max Speed with Great Technique

    Aerobic Base

    1. Sprint

    Swim Meet

    on some

    Weekends
    Critical Velocity

    Aerobic Base

    1. Max Speed

    		 Sprint

    Aerobic Endurance

    1. Stroke Technique & Skills

    2. Max Speed
    1. Peak Lactate
    2. Aerobic Base
  • 1. Max Speed

    2. Stroke Technique & Skills

    		•  Sprint

    Aerobic Base

    1. Max Speed

    Figure 6 – Microcycle for Girls Age 12 and Boys Age 13 (± 1 year)

    Taper Phase (Primary and Secondary Objectives)

    Sun

    Mon

    Tue

    Wed

    Thu

    Fri

    Sat
    Critical Velocity

    Aerobic Recovery

    1. Speed

    		 Skills & Technique

    Aerobic Recovery

    1. Sprint

    Competition
    Sprint

    Aerobic Base

    1.Skills & Technique

    		 Race Simulation

    Max Speed

    1. Aerobic Base

    		 Race Simulation

    Aerobic Recovery

    1. Max Speed

    2. Skills

    Figure 7 – Microcycle for 14/Older Age-Group Swimmers

    Early Season (Primary and Secondary Objectives)

    Sun

    Mon

    Tue

    Wed

    Thu

    Fri

    Sat
    Aerobic Endurance

    Max Speed

    1. Stroke Technique & Skills

    		 Aerobic Base

    Max Speed

    1. Aerobic Endurance

    2. Stroke Technique

    Rest

    		 Critical Velocity

    Aerobic Base

    1. Aerobic Endurance

    Rest

    		 Aerobic Endurance

    Max Speed

    1. Aerobic Base

    2. Stroke Technique
    Critical Velocity

    Aerobic Base

    1. Sprint

    Rest

    		 Max VO2 or Lactate Tolerance

    Aerobic Base

    1. Max Speed

    		 Aerobic Endurance

    Stroke Technique & Skills

    1. Max Speed

    		 Critical Velocity

    Aerobic Base

    1. Sprint

    Rest

    Figure 8 – Microcycle for 14/Older Age-Group Swimmers

    Mid-Season (Primary and Secondary Objectives)

    Sun

    Mon

    Tue

    Wed

    Thu

    Fri

    Sat
    Critical Velocity

    Aerobic Base

    1. Stroke Technique & Skills

    Rest

    		 Aerobic Base

    Max Speed

    1. Aerobic Endurance

    Rest

    		 Aerobic Endurance

    Max Speed

    1. Aerobic Base

    		 Critical Velocity

    1. Aerobic Base

    2. Stroke Technique & Skills
    Sprint

    Aerobic Endurance

    1. Max Speed

    2. Stroke Technique

    		 Max VO2 or Lactate Tolerance

    1. Aerobic Base

    2. Max Speed

    		 Aerobic Endurance

    Stroke Technique

    1. Max Speed

    		 Critical Velocity

    Aerobic Base

    1. Sprint

    2. Stroke Technique

    		 Peak Lactate And/or Race Pace

    Aerobic Base

    1. Max Speed

    Rest or Modify Saturday Program to Fit With Swim Meet

    Figure 9 – Microcycle for 14/Older Age-Group Swimmers

    Taper Phase (Primary and Secondary Objectives)

    Sun

    Mon

    Tue

    Wed

    Thu

    Fri

    Sat
    Speed

    Aerobic Base

    1. Skills & Technique

    		 Race Simulation

    Skills

    1. Aerobic Recovery

    		 Competition
    Critical Velocity

    Aerobic Recovery

    1. Skills

    		 Sprint

    Skills & Technique

    1. Aerobic Base

    		 Aerobic Endurance

    1. Skills & Technique

    		 Race Simulation

    Speed

    1. Aerobic Base

    		 Speed

    Aerobic Recovery

    1. Skills & Technique

    AUSTRALIAN SWIMMING INC. – MULTI-YEAR AGE GROUP SWIMMER DEVELOPMENT MODEL
    Age

    8 + 1 year

    10 + 2 years

    Girls 12 /Boys 13 + 1 year

    14 + 2 years
    Training Period

    2 years

    2 years

    2-3 years

    3-5 years
    Training Time

    per Week

    Pool

    Land

    Pool

    Land

    Pool

    Land

    Pool

    Land

    2-4 Sessions

    1-2 Sessions

    3-5 Sessions

    2 Sessions

    4-6 Sessions

    2-3 Sessions

    6-10 Sessions

    2-3 Sessions

    40 min-1 hr

    15-25 min

    1-1¼ hr

    20-30 min

    1¼-1½ hr

    30-45 min

    1½-2 hr

    45 min-1 hr
    Volume/ Session

    0.75-2km

    2-3.5km

    3.5-6km

    4-8km *

    (* During some developmental stages, girls will be capable of handling a greater volume of training than boys, due to an advanced rate of maturation.)
    Yearly Training

    24-30 weeks

    30-36 weeks

    36-44 weeks

    40-46 weeks
    Volume (Pool)

    75-250km

    250-500km

    500-1000kms

    1000-2500kms
    Training

    Objectives

    		 Technique
    all strokes

    Racing Skills
    starts,
    turns,
    pace

    Aerobic
    Endurance

    Sculling
    Drills

    Speed at
    25-50m

    Simple
    Training
    Sets and
    Games

    		 Flexibility

    General
    Body
    Strength

    Movement
    Coordination

    Group
    Activities

    		 Technique

    Racing
    Skills

    Aerobic
    Endurance

    Speed
    (<50m)
    and
    Acceleration

    Greater
    mix of
    Training
    Methods

    		 Increase
    Strength
    to Body
    Weight
    Ratio

    Even
    Develop-ment
    of all
    muscle
    groups

    Flexibility

    Improve
    ‘core’
    body
    strength

    		 Technique

    Increased
    Volume

    Racing
    Skills

    Speed
    (<50m)
    and
    Acceleration

    Introduce
    some
    Intense
    Interval
    Training

    		 Musculo-
    Skeletal
    Assessment

    Body
    Weight
    Exercises
    and
    Simple
    Gym
    Equipment

    Flexibility
    and
    Body
    Strength

    		 Increase
    Volume
    and
    Intensity
    of
    Training

    Integrated
    Training
    Model

    Begin
    to
    Specialise

    Perfect
    Technique
    and
    Skills

    		 Periodise
    Strength
    Program

    Transfer
    Power
    into
    Swimming
    Performance

    Cross
    Training
    Activities

    Maintain
    Flexibility
    Motor

    Learning

    Objectives
    1. Develop a feel for the water, the ability to make corrections in movement patterns.
    2. Learn the technical skills of all four strokes.
    3. Develop general body coordination and strength.
    4. Learn good habits for maintaining and improving natural flexibility.
    5. Learn to maintain correct technique on longer (submaximal) swims.
    6. Learn to maintain correct technique on short sprints.
    1. Improve stroke technique and learn race skills (such as turns, starts, pacing, and acceleration).
    2. Consolidate stroke development.
    3. Improve conditioning components of endurance and speed while maintaining stroke technique.
    4. Develop simple race strategy and tactics.
    1. Maintain efficient technique as body proportions change.
    2. Accommodate increases in muscle strength to improve swimming efficiency.
    3. Retain diversity of performance goals (compete in various stroke events and distances).
    4. Improve both steady pace and sprint performance using ideal stroke technique (all strokes).
    1. Adapt to diverse training methods.
    2. Refine stroke technique during all speeds and intensity of swimming.
    3. Apply strength and power to swimming performance.
    4. Specialise in strokes and competition distances.
    5. Retain range of motion and muscular coordination at all swimming speeds.
    6. Refine race skills (starts and turns, tactics, pace, etc.).
    7. Learn to ‘taper’ for peak performance.
    Knowledge

    and

    Attitudes
    1. Enjoyment of pool and land based activities.
    2. Learn to function as an individual within a group activity.
    3. Become familiar with rules and competitive situations.
    4. Learn about stroke technique and training methods.
    1. Enjoyment of pool and land based activities.
    2. Become part of the club, team, squad culture.
    3. Develop habits which support an active, healthy lifestyle.
    4. Begin to function with less direct supervision and make positive decisions regarding training compliance.
    1. Enjoyment of swimming activities and desire for personal improvement.
    2. Broader knowledge of training methods and the resulting performance outcomes.
    3. Improved personal management skills (balancing training, school and social objectives).
    4. Develop self-discipline and increasing commitment to swimming.
    1. Enjoyment of the process (i.e. goal setting) and product (i.e. attainment of results) of sports participation.
    2. Understanding and practicing performance management skills (such as good nutrition, recovery techniques, mental skills, etc.).
    3. Independence (i.e. working with a coach and support personnel, but taking responsibility for self).
    4. Improved personal skills (including education and vocational objectives).
    Competition

    Objectives

    		 Have fun and learn to participate without anxiety or distraction. Personal improvement (in both performance and skill) and enjoyment should be recognised and reinforced. Club level competitions leading up to State competitions (i.e. school or age group). Skill development, improvement and number of events swum are the most important goals. Club and State level competition (age group). Performance goals should be evaluated regularly as they apply to both training and competition. Each race opportunity is used as a learning experience. State and National (age group) performance goals. Competition in ‘open’ events as ability improves. Selection of events begins to focus on stroke and distance. Race strategies and mental skills are perfected.


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