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Schwimmtests

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The Physiology department at the Australian Institute of Sport is responsible for carrying out several tests on athletes, which are designed to provide feedback on how an athlete is performing at any one time. Testing at the AIS is focused on three areas: assessment of aerobic and anaerobic fitness, measurement of body composition and routine blood and health-status profiling.

The major swimming tests carried out by the Physiology department are:

1) The 7 x 200m step test, which provides objective information on the aerobic or endurance fitness of the swimmer.

2) The 7 x 50 m incremental test on a 2:00 minute cycle, which is used to characterise the relationships between swimming velocity, stroke rate and distance per stroke.

3) Assessment of body composition, which involves concurrent measurements of body mass and sum of skinfolds. Extensive use is made of the ratio of body mass (kg) to sum of skinfolds (mm) as a means of monitoring changes in overall body composition.

4) Hematological (Blood profiles), biochemical and immunological (health status) testing  are conducted routinely to assess the medical status of the swimmer and identify early indicators of overtraining or maladaptation.

Generally, however, the majority of swimming tests at the AIS are pool-based for reasons of specificity and practicality.

Physiological testing of swimmers at the AIS is undertaken throughout the year, but is concentrated primarily on the preparation for the major championships in each calendar year. In normal circumstances there are two competitive cycles each year for international-level Australian swimmers. The first cycle (November to March) involves preparation for the national championships held in March or April each year, while the second cycle is for the major international swimming championships usually conducted in July and August (summer in the Northern Hemisphere). Based on an average 12-16 week preparation, testing is usually conducted at the following points:

  • Early in the preparation (2 weeks into preparation: 10-14 weeks from competition)
  • Mid-preparation (6-8 weeks from competition)
  • Pre-taper (3-4 weeks from competition)

Physiological information obtained during submaximal and maximal effort testing provides critical information for the coach to determine training loads and monitor performance improvements with training. The tests described here have evolved over a period of 15 years on the basis of practical experience, and applied research.

Assessment of Aerobic Fitness: The 7 x 200m Step Test

The aim of the 7 x 200m step test is to provide information on the aerobic or endurance fitness of the swimmer. This test is a "graded incremental test", which means that each of the seven 200m efforts must be faster than the one before, and is always done using a swimmer's main stroke on a 5 minute cycle (a very easy cycle). As a typical 200m would range from 2.00 minutes to 2minutes 30 seconds, there is plenty of rest to ensure adequate recovery between each 200. In this test cardiovascular (heart rate), metabolic (blood lactate) and mechanical (stroke rate and stroke count) characteristics are measured. This data is then processed using standard computer software for the generation of heart rate- and lactate-velocity curves.

The basic assumptions of this test are that heart rate responses to submaximal exercise is indicative of cardiorespiratory fitness, and changes in blood lactate concentration reflect training-induced adaptations occurring within skeletal muscle. In practice, improvements in fitness are indicated by characteristic changes in the heart rate-speed and lactate-velocity relationships.

The 200 m step test is used either in isolation or in conjunction with other tests depending on the requirements of the scientist and coach. Table 1 shows a typical set of results obtained from a 7 x 200 m step test:

Swim

200m

(min:sec)

1st 100m

(sec)

2nd 100m

(sec)

Ave 100m

(sec)

HR

(bpm)

La

(mM)

SR

(st/min)

SC

(st/50m)

RPE

1

2:21.40

71.0

70.4

70.7

120

1.8

35.5

38

8

2

2:18.10

69.3

68.9

69.1

133

1.9

35.4

37

11

3

2:11.15

65.1

66.1

65.6

142

2.2

38.9

38

12

4

2:05.13

62.5

62.6

62.6

156

3.3

39.5

38

13

5

1:59.47

59.5

60.0

59.7

172

5.7

42.5

38

14

6

1:55.99

57.5

58.3

57.9

178

8.2

43.1

38

16

7

1:51.91

56.1

55.9

56.0

181

11.2

43.7

38

18

In this table, the recorded results are as follows:

  • 200m (min:sec): the total time of the 200m effort swum.
  • 1st 100m (sec): the time of the 100m split.
  • 2nd 100m (sec): the time of the 2nd 100m split.
  • Ave 100m (sec): the average100m time for the 200m effort.
  • HR (bbm): the swimmers heart rate after the swim in beats per minute.
  • La (mM): the swimmers lactate level after the swim in milli Moles.
  • SR (st/min): the stroke rate of the swimmer during the 200m effort per minute.
  • SC (st/50m): the number of strokes per lap the swimmer took.
  • RPE (6-20): the rating of perceived effort. The swimmers rate how hard the 200m effort was from 6 (very easy) to 20 (maximal)

Using the data collected, graphs are derived to establish the heart rate- and lactate-velocity relationship. In simple terms, heart rate (bpm) and lactate (mM) for each swim are plotted on the y-axis against swimming speed on the x-axis. Additional information such as stroke rate, distance per stroke and stroke count, can also be graphed in a similar manner if necessary. The following example illustrates how the heart rate-speed relationship changes with training:

Physiologie1

Ideally, athletes want to be able to swim faster with a lower heart rate. That is what has happened on this graph. Compared to 14-May-1998, on the 17-August-1998, the swimmers speed was faster and his heart rate was lower (as the time becomes less on the X axis, the heart rate increases (Y-axis), however, it is increasing less)

In practice, consideration of the following points are used to assist the interpretation of 7 x 200m step test results:

  • Was the maximal effort 200m time (i.e. the 7th 200 m) faster or slower than before and how does it relate to the swimmer's personal best time for the 200 m?

  • What were the differences in time between each of the seven swims, and were the swims completed with even or appropriate splits? (ie. the first hundred metres was roughly the same speed as the second hundred).

  • Have the lactate and heart rate curves moved and if so in which direction? (Ideally, the lactate and heart-rate curves should move to the right, which indicates greater fitness.)

Assessing Changes in Fitness from the 7x200m Step Test:

The specific parameters measured during the aerobic step test (velocity, heart rate, blood lactate and stroke count) all provide distinct indicators of a swimmers fitness. In practice, the heart and lactate curves are studied and evaluated for indications of improvement, plateauing or degradation of performance. Two approaches are generally used. Firstly, in graphical terms the heart rate-velocity and lactate-velocity curves will shift upwards and/or leftwards if fitness has deteriorated. In contrast, a shift downwards and/or rightwards is taken as evidence of improved aerobic fitness.

Data obtained from the physiological testing of Daniel Kowalski in 1998 illustrates the value of monitoring these tests. By examining changes in the "Velocity of Anaerobic Threshold" (VAT)- the speed at which Daniel can swim to have a lactate level of 4mM, Physiologists can estimate what sort of form he is in.  (Table 2). Kowalski was world ranked 4th in the 200m FS (1:48.26), 6th in the 400m Fs- (3:48.91), 5th in the 150Om:FS (1 5:03.40),,and was a member of the 4 x 200m FS relay team that set the world record (7:11.86) in September 1998 (split time: -1:47.81). His calculated "VAT" at the 1998 World Championships was 62 seconds per 100m, deteriorated slightly mid-season to 63 and 65 seconds, before improving again back to 62 seconds at the end of the next season. This shows that how his fitness levels changed over a season.

Interpretation of the lactate and heart rate curves is made cautiously as other factors may influence the test results. For example, a swimmer who is glycogen depleted might show a weakened lactate response due to a lack of available energy material. This is generally accompanied by slower times during the final stages of the 7 x 200m step test.  Lactate and heart rate values may also be high without a true deterioration in aerobic condition if the swimmer is ill or struggling to adapt to the current training load. In these circumstances, the swimmer, coach and scientist discuss the possible causes of deterioration in indicators of aerobic fitness.

Assessing stroke efficiency: the 7 x 50m test:

The 7 x 50 m incremental test on a 2:00 minute cycle (push start) is used to identity the relationships between swimming speed or velocity (V), stroke rate (SR) and distance per stroke (DPS). Each swimmer completes seven, 50metre sprints, but each one must be faster than the one before. An example of the results of a 7x50m speed test appear below:

5m

45m

50m

15-45m

V

SR @25m

SL

SC

sec

sec

sec

sec

m/sec

st/min

m

st/50m

6.6

38.3

42.9

31.7

0.95

30.6

1.86

21

6.5

36.5

40.6

30.0

1.00

32.8

1.83

22

6.5

33.9

37.8

27.4

1.09

37.1

1.77

21

6.4

31.8

35.7

25.4

1.18

42.9

1.65

23

6.4

30.7

33.9

24.3

1.23

45.1

1.64

22

6.4

29.1

32.6

22.7

1.32

50.5

1.57

24

6.3

27.1

30.2

20.8

1.44

54.7

1.58

25

The parameters used here are the same as for the 7x200m STEP test, however, there are a few small changes:

  • 5m: the swimmer's time at the 5m mark of the 50m sprint.

  • 45m: the swimmer's time at the 45m mark of the 50m sprint.

  • 50m: the swimmer's total time for the 50m sprint.

  • 5-45m: the swimmer's time from the 5m mark to the 45m mark.

  • V: the speed in metres per second that the swimmer was going.

  • SR/25m: the number of strokes per minute that the swimmer was using at the 25m mark of the 50m effort.

  • SL: the distance each swimmer was moving with each stroke (in metres)

  • SC: the number of strokes the swimmer was taking each 50m.

In practice, distance per stroke is difficult to measure in the pool without sophisticated Biomechanical analysis. Simply counting strokes per lap may be inaccurate as this does not account for the distance traveled underwater and whether the lap finished on a complete stroke.

Assessment of body composition:

Measurement of height, body mass and sum of skinfolds are conducted on a routine basis in training and at national team camps. These measures provide useful information on body composition and the cumulative effects of training and dietary practices. With younger swimmers, height and body mass are evaluated in terms of the chronological and biological age. While comparison to normal ranges and group means are of interest, the most relevant comparison is with each individual swimmer's previous results. In practice, a "two compartment model" of body composition is most commonly used: this divides the body  into components of fat mass (sum of skinfolds) and lean body mass (skinfold-corrected total body mass). Measurement of body mass and sum of skinfolds gives an indirect estimation as to the relative proportions of these components. Extensive use is made of the ratio of body mass (kg) to sum of skinfolds (mm) as a means of monitoring changes in body composition. Swimmers like Michael Klim, the 1998 World Champion in the 200m FS (1:47.41) and 100m Fly (52.25), who has been at the AIS for 4 years, can compare his skin fold levels for that entire period, and calculate what his skin folds were when he swam his best.

More advanced anthropometric assessment (somatotype (physique type), limb lengths, breadths and girths, fractionation) are undertaken regularly. Fractionation of total body mass into the four compartments of skeletal mass (represented by bone breadths), fat mass (skinfolds), muscle mass (skinfold-corrected girths,), and residual mass (thoracic cavity measurements) is assessed. the table below presents an example of changes in estimates of compartment mass in a 19-year-old male swimmer. These measurements are useful in monitoring growth and physical maturation and permit more detailed assessment of changes in lean body mass and fat mass. There is a large degree of individual variation in body composition, even for elite swimmers, and this is considered when interpreting results. Periodic consultation with the swimming team dietitian is undertaken for swimmers to review dietary practices and develop appropriate strategies for training and competition.

Date

16-Feb-98

4-Jun-98

18-Aug-98

27-Oct-98

Height (cm)

192.9

193.0

192.7

193.5

Mass (kg)

77.9

80.7

83.0

83.3

Skinfolds (mm)

43.9

40.4

42.5

46.2

Fat (kg)

6.8

6.4

6.7

7.2

Muscle (kg)

37.0

38.6

39.1

38.7

Skeletal (kg)

13.6

13.5

13.6

13.8

Residual (kg)

21.6

21.9

22.5

21.8

Hematological and immunological profiling:

Hematological (blood) and immunological (health-status) testing is conducted to assess the medical status of each swimmer and identify early indicators of overtraining, sickness or maladaptation. A full blood examination and assessment of biochemical and iron status is undertaken on a regular basis through each training cycle. Standard hematological measures provided include: red blood cell count (erythrocytes), white blood cell count (leucocytes), white cell differential (the levels of the different types of white blood cells), hemoglobin, haematocrit, and associated indicators of red and white cell morphology. To assess iron status, the following tests are performed: serum ferritin, serum iron, total iron binding capacity and percent saturation.  Results are interpreted on an individual basis in light of recent training performance and medical history. Physical well-being and training performance may deteriorate even in the absence of any irregularity in blood test results. Where necessary a swimmer’s training program is modified in consultation with the coach, physician and scientist.

Maintaining good health in the face of prolonged and intensive training is another important consideration.  Immunological testing has indicated that salivary lgA concentration is related to the incidence sickness, and in particular of upper respiratory tract illnesses (Figure 4). Salivary lgA is one of the key immunoglobulins that form the first-line-of defense against pathogenic assault in the tissues lining the airways of the upper respiratory tract. When the salivary lgA concentration drops below a critical threshold there is an increased risk of illness. In this way, Physiologists can predict when a swimmer's immune system is weakening and take steps to correct the problem.

 

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