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GLYCOGEN REPLACEMENT RATE …
and its use in Program Design

By Dr Bob Treffene

Glycogen has a limited holding space in the muscles. When used in training programs the total quantity available will be dissipated at different rates dependent on the speed used by the swimmer. The replacement rate depends on many factors including (1) the type of muscles (white or red fast twitch or slow twitch) used at the selected speed and also (2) the type of exercise immediately following the fast set and what has been done in the previous session and what is done in the following sessions. Replacement of the glycogen to the muscles takes from 12 hours to 3 days. This paper connects the glycogen recovery time to the set up of fast and slow work within a weekly program. This enables race pace work in a program throughout the training season.

The following replacement times are slower if there is any muscle damage. I & IIA glycogen replacement time is based on the total stores lasting for 40 minutes at Vcr (or 100% VO2max). IIB glycogen time based on stores of 8 minutes at 200% VO2max. It is assumed that energy required for swimming propulsion is proportional to velocity cubed and at 100m pace energy used is 140% VO2max. The cube root of 200/140 is 1.125 so … if a swimmer can swim 100m in 50s, their 200% 50m time = 22.2 sec … if a swimmer can swim 100m in 54s, their 200% 50m time = 24 sec.

The glycogen utilisation is assumed to drop to low levels close to anaerobic threshold (AT) as below this level the synthesis of glycogen seems capable of equalling the removal rate in the type I fibres.

Note that a set of 12x300m or more swum at a speed between 75% to 85% VO2max in a session within 12-24 hours before a high intensity set will give a possibility of the IIB fibres being depleted for the second session as well as large depletion of the other two fibre groups. This means that care needs to be taken that the slow speed work is slow enough.

By suitable positioning of fat metabolism swimming (70% of the total program) then high intensity sets swum near maximum heart rate (heart rate sets) and race pace sprint sets can be programmed each week.

HEART RATE SETS

The essentials of this type of set are…

  1. The oxygen uptake and therefore the heart rate must be kept near maximum without reaching maximum until near the end of the set.
  2. The set should last for no less than 15 minutes actual swimming with 30 minutes being optimal.
  3. The rest period should be short but long enough to enable the set to be done with as much as possible race speed in the set.
  4. The set design should structure as much race pace as possible but with sufficient critical speed work as is necessary to keep the heart rate below maximum and therefore the lactic acid levels under control. Figure 1 illustrates the different speeds.
  5. Generally if the heart rate exceeds 10bpm from maximum in the first part of the set then the swimmer’s speed should be decreased below critical speed or the rest time increased.
  6. The last half of the set should be swum within 10bpm of maximum but only reach maximum in the last 200m of the set.

Glykogen

Figure 1

Relationship between heart rate, anaerobic threshold and 400m, 200m, 100m, competition speeds as % Vcr

The change in blood lactate with constant speed swimming below critical speed (the speed at which maximal oxygen uptake is first obtained) is illustrated in Figure 2 (A, B & C).

This peaking of the lactate at 8-10 minutes and decrease to a lower plateau has to be considered when designing sets.

For sprinters it is particularly important, as their peak lactate might be so high at critical speed that some of their fast twitch fibres will cease to operate and continued swimming at the critical speed can lead to small muscle tears and subsequent soreness the following days.

By keeping in mind the full range of blood lactate changes that occur below and above critical speed as illustrated in Figure 2 (A to E) and also that lactate will reduce by .5 mM/litre every rest minute and twice as fast at anaerobic threshold speed then suitable sets can be constructed.

Glykogen

Figure 2

Blood lactate changes as time increases from commencement of the swim for several constant speed swims

A Swimming at speeds just above anaerobic threshold

B Swimming at speeds still utilising energy below the maximum oxygen uptake

C Swimming at speeds measured by critical speed, critical power, or maximal oxygen uptake

D Swimming at 200m speed

E Swimming at 100m speed

 

By heart rate monitoring it is possible to modify the set to keep the lactate under full control. If maximum heart rate is not reached after 500m, the speed and rest ratio must be fairly appropriate and if the heart rate does get too close to maximum during the set then a slowing of the speed or an increase of the rest time can be suggested to the swimmer.

 

Typical examples of heart rate sets used by Olympic medallists are listed in the tables below. Sets for a Freestyler (400m in 3.45), Butterflyer (200m in 2.09) and Breaststroker (100m in 1.09) are as follows…

 

Table 2

Freestyler

Vcr 58.9, V10 59.8, Maximum Heart Rate 181

24x100m on 1.40

No

Time

Heart Rate

No

Time

Heart Rate

1

58.3

147

15

59.1

168

2

58.5

158

16

58.9

170

3

58.4

164

17

59.4

169

4

57.9

163

18

59.2

170

5

58.3

164

19

60.0

168

6

58.5

164

20

60.0

168

7

58.0

166

21

59.9

169

8

58.4

164

22

60.1

166

9

58.1

169

23

59.8

168

10

58.9

166

24

57.8

178

11

59.1

166

25

12

58.6

164

26

13

58.6

169

27

14

58.3

173

28

 

 

Table 3

Butterflyer

Vcr 64.8, V10 68.8, Maximum Heart Rate 205

32x50m on 60, 60, 60, 90

The set consists of 8x4 50m with each set starting with a dive and the other 3x50m push

No

Time

Heart Rate

No

Time

Heart Rate

1

31.4

17

30.6

2

32.5

18

31.8

188

3

32.4

19

31.8

4

31.9

172

20

31.9

190

5

31.0

21

30.6

6

32.2

179

22

31.6

190

7

32.3

23

31.7

8

32.0

183

24

31.4

188

9

30.3

25

30.7

10

31.4

182

26

31.8

193

11

32.2

27

31.9

12

31.9

184

28

31.5

196

13

30.4

29

30.6

14

31.9

186

30

31.2

196

15

32.3

31

31.7

16

31.9

186

32

31.6

196

 

Note that the time for each 200m set is faster than the swimmer’s expected 200m time but the heart rate is kept in check throughout the set.

 

Table 4

Breaststroker

Vcr 78.9, V10 81.8, both long course, Maximum Heart Rate 211

15x100m on 2.0 min. Short Course

No

Time

Heart Rate

No

Time

Heart Rate

1

1.20.9

-

15

1.15.5

205

2

1.20.6

181

16

3

1.19.5

185

17

4

1.19.2

186

18

5

1.19.0

187

19

6

1.18.4

190

20

7

1.17.9

191

21

8

1.17.6

192

22

9

1.18.2

195

23

10

1.17.7

195

24

11

1.17.7

197

25

12

1.17.3

198

26

13

1.17.2

199

27

14

1.17.2

200

28

 

Note that one second per 100m is allowed for short course but the heart rate monitoring keeps a check on the pace required.

Based on AT being 75% and 85% VO2 max for sprinters and distance swimmers respectively the following table could be developed. Tcr is the time for 100m swum at critical speed and TAT is the time for 100m swum at the anaerobic threshold.

 

Table 5

SPRINTERS

DISTANCE

Tcr

TAT

Tcr

TAT

60 sec

66 sec

60 sec

63 sec

65 sec

72 sec

65 sec

69 sec

 

Figure 3

Fibre utilisation as a function of swimming speed

Type of fibre used

Red slow & fast twitch

White* and red fast twitch & red slow twitch

Red slow twitch

50-60bpm below maximum

100% Vcr max (or Tcr)

200m pace

100m pace

Swimming Speed Control
  1. At a very slow swimming speed only the red slow twitch fibres will be used (mainly fat metabolism).
  2. Near the anaerobic threshold (AT) the heart rate will be 40-60bpm lower than maximum and red ST fibres will utilise carbohydrate (glycogen) as well as fat.
  3. At speeds near but below the critical speed (given as a time for 100m [Tcr]) the FT red fibres increase their utilisation with the production of lactic acid, which will stabilise (maybe with a slow rise with time) at a large value for sprinters and lower values for distance swimmers.
  4. For speeds above Tcr, which are 400m and below swimming racing speeds the white FT fibres are coupled into the force production in increasing numbers or firing rates.

References

1. Ahlquist L.E., Basserf D.R., Sufit R., Nagle F.J., and Paul Thomas D. The effect of pedalling frequency on glycogen rates in type I and type II quadriceps muscle fibres during submaximal cycling exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol., 65 (1992) 360-364

2. Andersen J.L., Klitgaard H., and Saltin B. Myosin heavy chain isoforms in single fibres from vastus lateralis of sprinters: influence of training. Acta Physiol. Scand., 151 (1994) 135-142

3. Andersen P., and Sjogaard G. Selective glycogen depletion in the subgroups of type II muscle fibres during intense submaximal exercise in man. Acta Physiol. Scand., 96 (1976) 2CA

4. Bangsbo J., Gollnick P.D., Graham T.E., and Saltin B. Substrates for muscle glycogen synthesis in recovery from intense exercise in man. J. Physiol., 434 (1991) 423-440

5. Brechue W.F., Ameredes B.T., Barclay J.K., and Stainsby W.N. Blood flow and pressure relationships which determine VO2 max, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 27 (1) (1995) 37-42

6. Cain S.PI. Mechanisms which control VO2 near VO=2max: an overview. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 27 (1) (1995) 60-64

7. Choi D., Cole K.J., Goodpaster B.H., Fink W.J. and Costill D.L. Effect of passive and active recovery on the resynthesis of muscle glycogen. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 26 (8) (1994) 992-996

8. Donoran C.H., and Brooks G.A. Endurance training affects lactate clearance not lactate production. Amer. J. Physiol., 244 (1983) E8392

9. Doyle J.A., Sherman W.P.I., and Strauss R.L. Effects of eccentric and concentric exercise on muscle glycogen replenishment. J. Appl. Physiol., 74 (4) (1993) 1848-1855

10. Ebringer L. Interaction of drugs with extranuclear genetic elements and its consequences. Terato Genesis.tarcinoq-Mutaqen., 10 (6) 1990 477-501

11. Esbjornsson N., Hellsten Y., Balsom P.D., Sjodin B., and Jansson E. Muscle fibre type changes with sprint training: effect of training pattern. Acta Physiol. Scand., 149 (1993) 245-246

12. Essen B., and Haggmark T. Lactate concentration in type I and II muscle fibres during muscle contraction in man. Acta Physiol. Scand., 95 (1975) 344-346

13. Essen B., Pernow B., Gollnick P.O., and Saltin B. Muscle glycogen content and lactate uptake in exercising muscles. In H. Howald and J.R. Poortmans (Eds.). Netabolic Adaptations to Prolonged Physical Exercise, Basel: Birkhauser (1975)

14. Friden J., Seger J., and Ekblom B. Topographical localisation of muscle glycogen: an ultrahistochemical study in the human vastus lateralis. Acta Physiol. Scand., 135 (1989) 381-391

15. Hellsten Y. Xanthine Dehydrogenase and Purine Metabolism in man. Acta Physiol. Scand., 151 (1994)

16. Hermansen L. and Vaage O. Lactate disappearance and glycogen synthesis in human muscle after maximal exercise. Amer. I. Physiol., 223 (1977) E422-429

17. Hood DA., Kelton R., and Nishio M.L. Mitochondrial adaptations to chronic muscle use: effect of iron deficiency. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 101A (3) (1992) 597-605

18. Ivy J.L., Katz A.L., Cutler C.L., Sherman W.M., and Coyle F.F. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion. J. Appl. Physiol., 64 (4) (1988) 1480-1485

19. Kirkwood S.P., Packer L., and Brooks G.A. Effects of endurance training on a mitochondrial reticulum in limb skeletal muscle. Arch. Biochem. Biophy., 255 (1) (1987) 80-88

20. Kirwan J.P., Costill D.L., Mitchell J.B., Houmard J.A., Flynn M.G., and Belts J.D. Carbohydrate balance in competitive runners during successive days of intense training. J. Appl. Physiol., 65 (6) (1988) 2601-2606

21. MacRae H.S., Dennis S.C., Bosch A.N., and Noakes T.D. Effects of training on lactate production and removal during progressive exercise in humans. J. Appl. Physiol., 72 (5) (1992) 1649-1656

22. Maglischo E.W. Swimming faster. Mayfield, Chico. (1982) 472 p.

23. Maglischo E.W., Maglischo C.W., Zier D.J., and Santos T.R. The effect of sprint-assisted and sprint-resisted swimming on stroke mechanics. J. Swim. Res., 1 (2) (1985) 27-33

24. McKenna M.J., Schmidt T.A., Hargreaves M., Cameron L., Skinner S.L., and Kjeldsen K. Sprint training increases human skeletal muscle Na*- K*- ATPase concentration and improves K* regulation. J. Appl. Physiol., 75 (1) (1993) 173-180

25. McLellan T.M., and Jacobs I. Muscle glycogen utilisation and the expression of relative exercise intensity. Int J. Sports Med., 12 (1) (1991) 21-26

26. Medbo J.I. Glycogen breakdown and lactate accumulation during high intensity cycling. Acta. Physiol. Scand., 149 (1993) 85-89

27. Ming Z. Studies of the critical velocity in highly competitive swimmers. In: P. Quinlan (Ed.) Swim 86 Year Book, Australian Swimming Inc., Brisbane 1986, pp59-64

28. Nordheim K., and Vollestad N.K. Glycogen and lactate metabolism during low-intensity exercise in man. Acta. Physiol. Scand., (1990) 475-484

29. Orok C.J., Hughson R.L., Green H.J., and Thomson J.A. Blood lactate responses in incremental exercise as predictors of constant load performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol., 59 (1989) 262-267

30. Pagliassotti N.J., and Donavan C.N. Role of cell type in net lactate removal by skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol., 258 (1990) E635-642

31. Piehl K. Glycogen storage and depletion in human skeletal muscle fibres. Acta. Physiol. Scand., Suppl. 402 (1974) 1-23

32. Price T.B., Taylor R., Mason G.F., Rothman D.L., Shulman G.I., and Shulman R.G. Turnover of human muscle glycogen with low-intensity exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 26 (8) (1994) 983-991

33. Neuter P.D., Costill D.L., Fielding R.A., Flynn M.G., and Kirwan, J.P. Changes during reduced training. Med. and Sci. in Sports and Exercise, 19 (1987) 486-490

34. Reeves J.T., Eugene M.D., Wolfel E., Howard M.D., Green, J., Miazzeo R.S., Young J., Sutton J.R., and Brooks G.A. Oxygen transport during exercise at altitude and the lactate paradox: lessons from operation Everest II and Pikes Peak. Exer. Sports Sc. Rev., 20 (1992) 275-295

35. Robergs R.A. Nutrition and exercise determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis, Int. J. Sport Nut., 1 (1991) 307-337

36. Sharp R.L. Prescribing and evaluating interval training sets in swimming: a proposed model. J. Swim. Res., 9 (1993) 36-40

37. Smith B.W., McMurray R.G., and Symanski J.D. A comparison of the anaerobic threshold of sprint and endurance trained swimmers. J. Sports Med., 24 (1984) 94-99

38. Stanley W.C., Gertz E.W., Wisneski J.A., Neese R.A., Morris D.L., and Brooks G.A. Lactate extraction during net lactate release in legs of humans during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol.. 60 (4) (1986) 1116-1120

39. Thomson J.A., Green H.J., and Houston M.E. Muscle glycogen depletion patterns in fast twitch fibre subgroups of man during submaximal and supramaximal exercise. Pflugers Arch., 379 (1979) 105-108

40. Treffene R.J. A technique for predicting and controlling optimal performance capability of competitive swimmers based on heart rate measurements. Ph.D. thesis. University of London (1982) 251 p.

41. Treffene R.J. The heart rate-lactate connection. Proceedings XIth Annual Australian Swimming Coaches and Teachers Conference (1991)

42. Treffene R.J., Dickson R., Craven C., Osborne C., Woodhead K., and Hobbs K. Lactic acid accumulation during constant speed swimming at controlled relative intensities. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness, 20 (1980) 244-254

43. Vollestad N.K., Blom P.C.S., and Gronnerod O. Resynthesis of glycogen in different muscle fibre types after prolonged exhaustive exercise in man. Acta. Physiol. Scand., 137 (1989) 15-21

44. Vollestad N.K., Vaage O., and Hermansen L. Muscle glycogen depletion patterns in type I and subgroups of type II fibres during prolonged severe exercise in man. Acts. Physiol. Scand., 122 (1984) 433-441

45. Wenger H.A., and Bell G.N. The interactions of intensity, frequency and duration of exercise training in altering cardiorespiratory fitness. Sports Medicine, 3 (1986) 344-356

46. Wilson D.F. Energy metabolism in muscle approaching maximal rates of oxygen utilisation. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 27 (l) (1995) 54-59

 

 

Table 1

Workload %

VO2max

Event

Dominant
fuel

Dominant
fibre

Glycogen
time

Replace time

References

10-30

Channel

Fat

I

NA

NA

28,32

30-50

Magnetic

Fat

I

NA

NA

28,32

50-70

Long distance

Fat-gly

I

2 hours

24 hours

12, 13, 25, 29, 44

70-85

1500m (sprint)

Gly

I-IIA

<80 minutes

24 hours – 12 hours

2, 3, 12, 20, 25, 28, 44

85-100

1500m (distance)

Gly

IIA-I

<80 minutes

12 hours – 24 hours

As above

100

800m

Gly

IIA-I

40 minutes

12 hours – 24 hours

2, 31

110

400m

Gly

IIA-I-IIB

30 minutes

12 hours – 24 hours – 3 days

2, 11, 43

120

200m

Gly

IIA-I-IIB

20 minutes

12 hours – 24 hours – 3 days

11, 12, 30, 39

140

100m

Gly

IIA-IIB

15 minutes

12 hours – 3 days

1, 30, 39

>140

50m-25m

CP-gly

IIB

8 minutes

20 seconds

1, 14

 

 

 

Table 6

The energy processes at different swimming speeds relative to critical speed expressed as a time for 100m (Tcr)

Metabolism

% Tcr

Fat

<75% Sprinters

<85% Distance

Glycogen (CHO)

75-90%

Anaerobic Glycolytic

ATP-PC

90%

95-100%

100-120%

100-120%

Fibres used

Red ST

Red ST

Red ST & FT

Red ST & FT

* White & Red

* White & Red

Measure
below Max.

60-80 bpm

40-60 bpm

30-40 bpm

10-20 bpm

90-100%
of 100m pace

Normally

100-110%
of 100m pace

Quantity of
fuel

Many hours

1.5-2 hours

60-80 minutes

40-60 minutes

15 minutes at
100m pace

20 minutes at
200m pace

8 minutes

Time for
recovery of fuel

<24 hours

<24 hours

12 hours FT

24 hours ST

12 hours FT

24 hours ST

3 days ?? for

White FT

Glycogen

3 days ?? PC

10-20 seconds

Typical time of
units in Set

Up to 1 hour
continuous

Up to 1 hour

30 seconds to

15 minutes

30 seconds to

4 minutes

10 seconds to

40 seconds

Any time short
to get maximum
overload on PC

Types of Sets

Anything slow

(Technique,
slow drills)

Anything slow

(Technique,
slow drills)

6x400m or

3x800m or
slow ups and
downs

3x100m or

@ 1.40 or

20x50 bkn 200m
at race pace

4 to 8 20, 30,

40m on 60 with

200m to 400m at

50bp or 20x50 on

1.30-2 minutes

10-20 x 12.5m
or even 30x50 –

i.e. 3 times
overload
compared to 10

Main use

Technique

Technique.

Speeding of
adaptation.

Speeding of
fibre repair.

Technique.

Slight stress
lactate removal.

(Red FT)

Lactate removal

Red FT

Race speed
distance
swimmers

Lactate transfer

& removal
White, Red PT

Race pace

100m-400m

Increase of

PC-ATP, strength
of fibres & lactate
transfer white FT

* Predominant Fibre Typical 90% of 100m paces

50-55 60-66.6

55-61.0 65-72

 

 

 

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