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Schwimm-Ratgeber

Adaption nach Höchtleistungen

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Kategorie: Training
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By Edward H. Nessel, R.Ph., M.S., MPH

Zusammenfassung:

 

Dieser Artikel erklärt in verständlicher Form die biochemischen Vorgänge während und nach sportlichen Höchstleistungen in Training und Wettkampf. Es werden Möglichkeiten aufgezeigt, dieses Wissen insbesondere im Training umzusetzen.

Für eine optimale Vorbereitung auf Höchstleistungen werden besonders Serien von gebrochenen 100ern empfohlen. Dadurch wird ein hoher Laktatspiegel erzeugt und der Enzymhaushalt wird trainiert, die Milchsäure wieder abzubauen. Danach ist lockeres Schwimmen angeraten (200 - 400m) um den Milchsäureabbau zu beschleunigen.

Da es bis zu drei Tage dauern kann um die Glycogenspeicher in den weißen Muskelfasern wieder aufzufrischen, muß das Sprinttraining sorgfältig dosiert werden.  Die roten Muskelfasern können bei richtiger Ernährung binnen 14 Stunden wieder aufgefrischt werden.

Die Muskeln können max. 800m gebrochenes Schwimmen bei höchster Geschwindigkeit pro Trainingseinheit bewältigen. Und nochmal: Drei Tage vergehen, bevor es Sinn macht nochmals so hart Einheiten schwimmen zu lassen.  Zwei Einheiten Schnelligkeitsausdauertraining pro Woche  gewährleisten die notwendige Adaption. Übertraining und übermäßige Muskelermüdung sollte dann nicht auftreten.

 

This paper is written to bridge the gap between the science of biochemistry and physiology and the practicality of athletic training. What good is sophisticated information if it cannot be utilised by coaches and their swimmers? What follows is an effort to explain and make practical what some of the body’s responses to intense physical training are and how we may modify and/or enhance them with the use of two ergogenic (work enhancing) substances.

The body’s handling of high-energy-bound molecules under the stress of intense training or competition along with several other cellular adaptations of interest to swimmers who want to know why and how to train intelligently to move fast through the water will now be undertaken.

THE HIGH-ENERGY MOLECULES

Nucleotides

 

We all know that the body derives movements from the muscles; what many may not know is what actually fuels this movement. There are several complicated pathways that the body presents to produce energy. What will be discussed are the substances that are specifically designed to quickly ignite the fuel of activity … HIGH-ENERGY ADENINE NUCLEOTIDES. These organic compounds are composed of three segments … ADENOSINE, which is a cyclic nitrogen-containing compound, the building blocks of which are found in protein … RIBOSE, a five-carbon sugar produced by the body’s chemical breakdown of simple carbohydrates, and PHOSPHATE, ubiquitously found in all sorts of foods. It is these phosphates that become the carriers of high-energy bonds ... the keys to the transference of energy.

The high-energy phosphate (~P) comes in three concentrations: mono (1), di-(2), and tri-(3). The highest energy content logically is the tri-phosphate (adenosine tri-phosphate, ATP), but it is also the most friable ... giving off one phosphate bond quite easily to provide energy for muscular movement and then producing a less energy-laden di-phosphate molecule (adenosine di-phosphate, ADP). If further energy is quickly required before molecular rejuvenation (with oxygen) is able to take place, another phosphate bond is removed, producing the lowest level energy nucleotide, adenosine monophosphate, AMP).

 

Skeletal and cardiac (heart) muscle cells must have a certain ratio of ATP to ADP to AMP for optimum functioning. When this ratio shows a preponderance of AMP due to high-energy-bond depletion from intense training or sprint competition, and nothing is done (or able to be done) to change this rather quickly (either by use of extensive re-oxygenation or rest and/or ingestion of pertinent carbohydrates), the cells begin to remove AMP metabolites altogether to form other molecules that lead to a degradation sequence some of which is irreversible. This is bad since every bit of the adenosine nucleotide-substance pool is necessary for regenerating the high energy molecules necessary to power the various cells upon demand, and if the raw material for the high-energy bonds is missing, sufficient amounts of energy-upon-demand can not come into play ... performance suffers and recovery can be extensively delayed. It is potentially dangerous to cardiac muscle which has been shown to become severely depleted of ATP when deprived of oxygen due to narrowed or partially-clogged arteries (ischemia) that produces chest pain in response to demanding physical activity (angina). Once the blood supply is able to be returned to normal, the heart is not able to regenerate the original amount of the high-energy molecules of activity (ATP) for up to 72 hours. For those hearts that enjoy good vascular health, ATP is also depleted (as would be found in any fatigued muscle) but not to the extent of a heart with artery disease. Anything that would allow quick regeneration of ATP in cardiac muscle would obviously allow for faster recovery from intense training and also afford the athlete the ability to train at a higher level ... both producing faster swims at multiple event competitions.

Ribose

 

Research has shown that the rate-limiting factor in regeneration of ATP is the ribose molecule. Without an externally-ingested source of the 5-carbon ribose, the body must utilise several biochemical pathways to breakdown various forms of carbohydrate to first produce the 6-carbon glucose which is then finally converted to the necessary 5-carbon sugar molecule that helps form ATP. Extensive training of this biochemical enzyme system will allow for enhanced adaptation over time, but when instant energy is needed to fuel immediate intense muscular contraction, anything that will provide an enhanced supply of ATP will have an ergogenic (enhancing work) effect.

Supplementation with ribose has shown in several instances to be an enhancer of muscular contraction in both intensity and duration. Doses of between 3 and 10 grams fuel the necessary pathways to regenerate first ATP and then RNA ... the nucleic acid that is intimately involved in protein synthesis. Taken about one hour before muscular demand, the ribose efficiently finds its way into the energy sections (mitochondria) of the heart and skeletal muscle and allows for increased performance. There have been several trial doses ranging from 2 grams to 30 grams. The higher dose seems to produce the only untoward side effect seen with ribose: that of gastrointestinal irritability or diarrhoea. Laboratory studies with ribose have shown that with heavily-muscled athletes, 10 grams taken three times daily (one hour before training or competition, during the time between events, and within one hour after training or the day’s competition for recovery) produce enhanced results for both power and endurance.

Creatine

 

The main back-up source for INSTANT energy is the body’s normal store of creatine phosphate (CP) in the musculature which gives up its high energy phosphate bond to regenerate ATP as it is being consumed during the first 16 seconds of intense movement. This reaction does not need oxygen to function, and, in fact, occurs before oxygen actually has time to come into play (anaerobic conditions). Again, this is an immediate response to intense muscular contraction, and one the body does not like to support for long. Unfortunately the natural reserve of creatine in the various muscle tissues is limited (the reason for the limited amount of time it works in the energy cycle).

The body then has to go to the second line of energy production which will produce lactic acid as a "waste product" if the muscles are still firing at such a high rate as to not allow oxygen to enter the regeneration process. This lactic acid or lactate (as it is called when found in the blood), will lower the pH of the muscle environment and completely shut down muscle fibre movement if allowed to continue to build up. It is also the cause of "muscle burn" and contributes to the pain felt the following 12 to 24 hours. Of course, with a proper warm down of about 60% effort, much of the built-up lactate can be used as "fuel" to move the muscles and be consumed. This, along with a deep recovery massage, assures the almost total removal of this by-product of anaerobic muscular activity.

"Lactate-tolerance training," which produces an environment whereby nature allows the body to counter with "lactate buffers," is probably the most intense type of training and is kept at a frequency of no more than once or twice weekly. To chemically help in dealing with lactate and to supply the needed energy for somewhat prolonged anaerobic muscular contractions, the ingestion of exogenous (outside the body) CREATINE has proved to be quite an ergogenic. Creatine, made up of two naturally-found amino acids (glycine and arginine), can (by nature of its chemical makeup) act as a mild buffer to the formation of lactate and when taken as a supplement, can directly increase the concentration of CP in skeletal muscle.

 

It also affords the body the ability to build muscle tissue (which osmotically brings along water), and as such, may cause an increase in lean body mass. Any type of activity that demands intense muscular contractions over a rather short period of time (weight lifting, sprinting or power swimming) will benefit from creatine ingestion, though a few studies have shown equivocal results with swimmers. But unlike ribose, creatine does have some caveats to consider.

The presence of nitrogen in the amino acids puts the kidneys to work to remove it normally as a waste product of metabolism, but creatine in excess has the potential to overload the kidneys in time and may lead to renal failure ... certainly something to avoid. Therefore healthy kidney function should be ascertained before undertaking creatine ingestion. Also, the body stops making its own (endogenous) supply of creatine (normally one to two grams a day, depending upon how much protein is ingested) due to a negative feedback mechanism as long as creatine is ingested as a supplement. The building of muscle strength with creatine but not hydrating enough to "bathe" the fibres in lubricating fluid can lead to excessive friction and heat which can produce muscular spasms or even pulled or torn muscle tissue. This is due to the muscles becoming too strong too soon and not allowing adequate time for the supporting connective tissue (tendons) to strengthen accordingly.

With an average dosing of five grams of creatine per day along with 3-10 grams of ribose up to three times daily, we see a biochemical and physiological case where 1+1=3. The two substances synergistically enhance each other to produce an environment for enhanced power upon demand ... safely and so far legally accordingly to all the sports governing bodies.

The working factories of muscle tissue that produce energy (adenosine tri-phosphate, ATP), are the mitochondria. All muscle fibres contain mitochondria, and, as such, they are all able to produce energy from these areas. These are the only areas to produce ATP, and they seem to be the limiting factor in energy produced upon demand. The greater the size and number of mitochondria, the more energy can be produced per unit time, and the greater amount of work can be accomplished through intentional muscular contraction.

Several cell-types in the muscles can adapt to physical stress in a positive (or negative) way. Appropriate use of high-intensity training will bring about the desired changes over a period of weeks to allow the swimmer to move through the water with more power.

Mitochondria

 

Mitochondria are small segments in the muscle with glycogen deposits nearby. There are two types of mitochondria … short and long, with the latter being more efficient. Oxygen diffuses out of the cardiovascular system via the capillaries, and energy (ATP) is produced in the mitochondria by the use of oxygen in the metabolism of fats, glycogen, or lactic acid (if no oxygen, an anaerobic condition exists, and lactic acid accumulates).

If we increase the number of mitochondria, we can produce energy more rapidly. In order to increase this number, high-intensity stress must be placed upon them by working intelligently at high oxygen-uptake values and high heart rates ... in other words … fast swimming mixed with recovery swims! If pressure is not put on the mitochondria, they will not increase in number or in size.

Mitochondria increase in number by dividing. They sometimes change (adapt) periodically as a group, but while doing so are not able to take part in the production of energy. This places extra stress on the remaining mitochondria, causing the heart to beat faster to bring more oxygen to the reduced number of energy cells still functioning. The first stage of division (mitosis) takes about three days requiring iron for the recombination of proteins during this time. The following building and rehousing of these proteins take an additional week or so; therefore the athlete, for the next 10 days or so, will have an oxygen-utilisation problem, especially if the mitochondria are changing as a group.

 

Resulting effects could include an increased heart rate for the same repeats or intervals, a sense of not getting enough oxygen when stressed at the same intensity as before, a sluggish or "heavy" feeling in the water. Of course, these symptoms could also arise from overtraining or fighting an illness, but the athlete and coach should keep in mind that the appropriate adaptation of the energy systems might just be the cause of this temporary feeling of set back.

Skeletal Muscle-Fibre Types

 

Everyone is born with a mix of three muscle-types: Red slow-twitch (Ia), Red fast-twitch (Iia), and white fast-twitch (Iib). In order of fibre size (greater to smaller), white, red fast-twitch, and red slow-twitch make up the body of every muscle. The infrastructure of every muscle has the white fibres situated deep within the body surrounded by the red fibres.

White fibres are white because they have an almost non-existent capillary supply and therefore have no red blood permeating their tissue. These fibres work mainly anaerobically (in the absence of oxygen) and product lactic acid as the "waste product". Any glycogen source used by the white fibres produces lactic acid and not carbon dioxide (CO2) as happens with aerobic glycogen use in the red fibres. In a sprint, for example, if lactic acid is allowed to build up, the pH goes way down (acid content rising), and the fibres in direct contact with the acid shut down quickly. Those not yet engulfed in lactic acid are forced to work extra hard and begin to overstretch and tear. In fact, this is the major cause of muscle pain 12-24 hours after sprint or power swimming.

Training the Muscle Enzymes and Fibre-types to Adapt

 

The correct type of training will allow the muscle fibre to adapt in two ways … (a) some of the white fibres will change to red fast-twitch fibres with their capillary system to wash away the lactic acid, and (b) lactate-transporting-enzymes will be augmented as an adaptive mechanism to rid the white fibres of this "waste product" which is then neutralised in the blood by the body’s increased lactate-tolerance by way of its adding more buffers (e.g. bicarbonate).

The first adaptive mechanism (a) has the effect of somewhat reducing the strength of the changing muscle as a whole, but the newly-formed red fast-twitch fibres still allow for power and increased endurance, so the overall effect is to enable the swimmer to move through the water faster and longer. In addition, research has shown that up to 80% of the lactic acid can be oxidised and re-utilised as fuel to make ATP (once carried into the blood-bathed red fibre system) as long as oxygen from the cardiovascular system is allowed to mix freely.

 

The type of training sets used to produce the adaptive mechanisms described above would include race-pace swimming of several broken 100’s or intact 75’s with adequate rest. This produces high lactate levels which, in turn, train the sporting enzymes to increase their efficiency in removing the muscle-inhibiting lactic acid. This must be followed by moderate swimming over longer distances (200-400 yards/metres) to then allow the insitu (nearby) capillary and cardiovascular systems to increase in efficiency and further carry away lactate down the road to re-oxygenation.

 

Since the white muscle (power) fibres have the least amount of stored glycogen (of the three types of fibres) which can be depleted in as little as eight minutes with race-pace swimming and take as long as three days to re-energise, intelligent use of sprint swimming is a must if the athlete is to be trained correctly. Both types of red fibres can be refuelled with adequate and correct nutrition (including creatine and ribose) in about 14 hours.

A maximum of 800 yards/metres (broken at various distances and with various rest periods) at race-pace speed is all the muscle fibres can adequately handle in a training session. And, again, three days have to go by before another bout of power swimming would prove beneficial. An average of two sessions per week would provide the needed adaptations for enhanced power swimming and yet spare the body the consequences of overtraining and extreme muscular fatigue.

 

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