Suche

Menu

Suche Trainingspläne

Letzte Kommentare

  • Tanja Heinz zweifache Deutsche Mastersmeisterin!!!
    Ulrich Ringleb 11.09.2021 14:13
    Großartiger Erfolg! Glückwunsch allen Beteiligten ... :lol:

    Weiterlesen...

×

Warnung

JUser: :_load: Fehler beim Laden des Benutzers mit der ID: 62

Schwimm-Ratgeber

Laktatwert als Indikator für die Leistungsfähigkeit

Details
Kategorie: Mixed
Zugriffe: 10316
Print Friendly, PDF & Email
popular

Peak Blood Lactate & Accumulated Oxygen Deficit as Indices of Freestyle Swimming Performance in Trained Adult Female Swimmers

By…

Robert F. Zoeller … School of Human Performance and Recreation, Box 5142, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg MS 39406-5142 – Phone: (601) 266-6629 – Fax: (601) 26604445 – Email: Diese E-Mail-Adresse ist vor Spambots geschützt! Zur Anzeige muss JavaScript eingeschaltet sein!

Elizabeth F. Nagle; Robert J. Robertson; Scott M. Lephart; Fredric L. Goss … University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA

Niall M. Moyna … Nuclear Cardiology, Hartford Hospital, Hartford CT

(Reproduced from The Journal of Swimming Research, Vol. 14 – Fall 2000)

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to evaluate measures of peak post-exercise blood lactate (LApeak) and accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD) as indices of Freestyle swimming performance in trained adult female swimmers. These measures have been proposed to be valid indices of anaerobic energy production during exercise and competitive swimming has been reported to rely heavily on anaerobic metabolism. Specifically, this investigation examined the relation between: (1) LApeak and Freestyle swimming performance, (2) LApeak determined in a swimming flume and at poolside, (3) LApeak and AOD and (4) AOD and Freestyle swimming performance. Twelve well-trained female swimmers (24.9 + 7.1 years old) participated as subjects. A total of five tests were conducted – (1) a discontinuous multi-stage submaximal flume swim test to determine VO2 swimming speed relation, (2) a multi-stage continuous swim test to measure maximal oxygen consumption, (3) a single stage supramaximal swim test, and (4 & 5) two performance swims (50 and 500 yards) in a 50-yard pool. Results indicated that LApeak measured after a 50-yard performance swim (LApeak50) and after a supramaximal swim test (LApeakflume) correlated significantly with 50-yard performance time (r = -0.53 and –0.51 respectively). AOD was also significantly correlated with 50-yard performance time (r = -0.68). These data suggest that LApeak and AOD are valid indices of anaerobic power during short term/sprint Freestyle swimming events. None of the measures of LApeak nor AOD correlated with 500-yard performance time. As such, LApeak and AOD do not appear to be sufficiently sensitive indices of middle-distance swimming performance. The measures of LApeak and AOD showed no inter-relation. Further research in this area should continue to focus on the underlying mechanisms associated with these two indices of anaerobic power. Finally, while LApeak and AOD demonstrated significant correlations with 50-yard competitive swim performance, the relative weakness of these correlations does not warrant their use for predicting swim performance.

INTRODUCTION

High intensity competitive swimming requires energy from both aerobic and anaerobic metabolic pathways. Quantification of the contribution of these energy systems would improve understanding of the underlying metabolic determinants of high intensity swimming performance. Such knowledge would assist in designing and evaluating training programs for swimmers. The aerobic contribution to the energy demands of dynamic exercise is now routinely measured using assessments of oxygen uptake (VO2). In contrast, the current available methods to measure the anaerobic contribution to exercise have either proved unsatisfactory or have yet to be validated.

Blood lactate has been used as an index of anaerobic metabolism in exercising muscle. More specifically, peak post-exercise blood lactate (LApeak) has been proposed as an accurate and reliable quantitative measure of anaerobic glycolysis during the preceding exercise bout (6, 11, 17). The use of blood lactate levels to quantify glycolytic metabolism in skeletal muscle presumes that the net accumulation of lactate in the blood is quantitatively related to the production of lactate and, therefore, anaerobic glycolysis within the muscle. This theory, however, has been criticised on the grounds that it makes unsubstantiated assumptions about lactate diffusion and distribution kinetics (18). Despite these controversial assumptions, significant correlations (p<0.05) between LApeak and performance times in events largely dependent on anaerobic metabolism have been demonstrated in activities such as 400 and 800 metre track running (11, 16, 17). Further evidence in support of LApeak as an index of anaerobic power is further supported by two additional lines of evidence … (1) sprint and power trained athletes generate greater LApeak values measured after sprint/high intensity exercise bouts when compared to endurance trained athletes or untrained individuals (10, 13, 16), (2) high-intensity training has been shown to concomitantly improve sprint performance and increase LApeak (5, 8, 20).

More recently, the measure of accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD) during supramaximal exercise has been proposed as a measure of anaerobic capacity (14). The assessment of AOD relies on the estimation of supramaximal oxygen demand from extrapolation of the VO2 – power output relation determined from numerous submaximal exercise bouts (14). Accumulated oxygen deficit is then defined as the difference between the predicted supramaximal VO2 demand and the actual VO2 measured during a bout of supramaximal exercise (14). This difference is assumed to be the anaerobic contribution to the exercise bout. The determination of AOD has also been criticised for underlying assumptions (i.e. linearity) regarding the extrapolation of submaximal VO2 – power output relation to determine supramaximal energy demand (3). As with LApeak significant correlations between AOD and performances dependent on anaerobic metabolism have been demonstrated in running (17, 22) and cycling (4). Similarly, higher AOD values have been reported in sprint/power athletes during sprint/high intensity exercise when compared to endurance trained or sedentary individuals (13, 15, 19). However, the relation between AOD and Freestyle swimming performance has yet to be established.

In summary, LApeak and AOD have been proposed as valid indices of anaerobic/glycolytic metabolic activity and exercise performance. Implicit with this hypothesis is the expectation that these measures would not only be correlated with Freestyle swimming performance but with each other as well. Therefore, this study used trained adult female swimmers to evaluate the relation between … (1) LApeak and Freestyle swimming performance, (2) AOD and Freestyle swimming performance, (3) LApeak determined experimentally in a swimming flume and LApeak measured after performance swims in a 25-yard pool and (4) the measures of LApeak and AOD.

METHODOLOGY

Subjects

12 well-trained female swimmers volunteered to participate in this investigation. Subject characteristics are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Subjects were recruited from a pool of individuals capable of swimming (Freestyle) 50 yards in 30 seconds or less and/or 500 yards in 7 minutes or less. Subjects completed swim and medical history questionnaires and gave their written consent prior to their participation in the study. All experimental procedures were approved by the University of Pittsburgh’s Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Experimentation.

Table 1. Subject Characteristics

 

Variables

Mean + SD

N

12

Age (yrs)

24.92 + 7.14

Height (cm)

169.20 + 5.70

Weight (kg)

63.26 + 6.55

% Body Fat

21.53 + 4.33

Years of swim training

15.33 + 6.15

Yards trained per week

10,416 + 10,112

 

Table 2. Subjects’ self-reported swim training history and personal records (PR)

Subject

Yards Trained per Week

Years of Training

PR for 50yds (sec)

PR for 500yds (min:sec)

EC

16,000

15

28.0

5:52

CI

12,000

16

-

-

U

5,000

10

29.0

-

CK

5,000

16

27.0

7:05

ML

40,000

5

28.7

4:36

AM

6,000

14

26.7

6:15

LP

12,000

27

28.8

6:13

3?

6,000

14

25.7

6:21

RR

3,000

15

29.5

6:32

CR

7,000

25

24.2

5:08

MS

9,000

18

27.9

5:35

CS

3,000

9

28.0

-

Experimental Design

All subjects underwent an orientation trial prior to the experimental trials. Subsequent to the orientation trial, each participant performed a total of 5 tests … (1) a discontinuous multi-stage submaximal swim test to determine the swimming speed-VO2relation for the prediction of supramaximal oxygen demand, (2) a multi-stage continuous swim test to measure VO2maxswim, (3) a single stage supramaximal swim test to measure LApeak and AOD, and (4 & (5) two all-out swims in the pool (50 and 500 yards) to measure performance time and post competition LApeak. The first three tests were conducted in a swimming flume (SwimEx Systems Inc., Warren RI, Model #SX600T) and the performance swims were conducted in the University of Pittsburgh swimming pool. The order of testing was randomised except for the supramaximal test. This was because the speed of the supramaximal test was determined from data generated by the submaximal and VO2maxswim, tests. The individual tests were separated by at least one week. Subjects were instructed to maintain their normal training regime during this time. With the exception of one individual, none of the subjects were training for competition. Most (10) of the subjects had competed at the high school or college level but now trained largely for fitness. As such, there was little variation in training routine from week to week.

Orientation Trial

Upon arrival at the swimming flume, weight, height, percent body fat, were determined for each subject. For descriptive purposes, percent body fat was determined using skinfold and gluteal circumference measures (9). Following completion of the anthropometric measurements, subjects practiced swimming in the flume. In order to become familiar with the unique aspects of swimming in the flume, subjects swam in the flume without respiratory/metabolic equipment during the initial orientation trial. After a brief rest, subjects then swam at four submaximal speeds using respiratory/metabolic instrumentation. This served two purposes … (1) to allow the subject to become familiar with swimming in the flume while wearing a mouthpiece/face mask and heart rate monitor, and (2) to allow the investigators to assess the subjects’ responses to swimming in the flume at various speeds. A specially designed mouthpiece/face mask worn by the subjects was connected to an open-circuit spirometry system (SensorMedics, MMC Horizon) so that respiratory/metabolic data could be collected. Heart rates were measured every minute with a Polar heart rate monitor. This respiratory/metabolic instrumentation was used during all tests conducted in the flume with the exception of the supramaximal swim test.

Submaximal Swim Test

The submaximal test consisted of six swims of three minutes duration performed in a stationary position against progressive speeds of water current generated by the flume. Each swim was separated by five minutes rest. The initial speed, as determined from the orientation trial, was such that it elicited a heart rate of 120 to 130 beats per minute and/or a VO2 of not more than 25ml kg-1 min-1. Swimming speed was then increased an average of 0.10 metre sec-1 each stage. VO2 was reported in 20 second averaging intervals. Steady state VO2 for each stage was defined as a difference of 2ml kg-1 min-1 or less between the last three 20 second averaging intervals. Steady state VO2 for each stage was recorded as the average of the last three 20 second averaging intervals. Steady state V)2 was then plotted as a function of swimming speed and a regression line drawn for the purpose of predicting supramaximal VO2 demand (Figure 1).

VO2maxswim Test

The VO2maxswim test employed a continuous graded exercise test (GXT) to exhaustion. The protocol for the GXT was adapted from that employed by Wakayoshi et al (21).

 

Peak Blood 1

Swimming Speed (m sec-1)

 

 

Laktat

Time (min)

 

Figure 1 – Steps in the determination of accumulated oxygen deficit: (1) determination of speed – VO2 relation (—) from submaximal swim test, (2) measurement of VO2maxswim (------), (3) determination of supramaximal VO2 demand (·-·-) and swimming speed (¨¨¨¨), (4) measurement of accumulated oxygen uptake (area under curve) and (5) calculation of AOD: difference between the estimated supramaximal oxygen demand and the accumulated oxygen uptake (¯ ¯ ¯ ¯). Graphs represent data from subject LP.

Subjects performed a 10-minute warm-up swim beginning at approximately 40% of their age-predicted maximal heart rate (APMHR) and progressing to approximately 85% of their APMHR. Subjects then rested until their heart rate was less than 100bpm. The first exercise stage began at the speed corresponding to approximately 85 per cent of the subjects’ age APMHR. The first exercise stage was two minutes in duration. Thereafter, swimming speed was increased 0.10m sec every 30 seconds until exhaustion.

Supramaximal Swim Test

The supramaximal swim test consisted of a single stage exhaustive swim performed in the flume at a speed corresponding to 124 + 7.6% of the subjects’ VO2maxswim for the measurement of AOD and LApeak. This intensity was determined from pilot work and allowed subjects to swim for at least two minutes … an important criteria for the determination of AOD (14). The speed for this test was then calculated from an extrapolation of the VO2-swimming speed relation determined from the submaximal swim test (Figure 1).

During the test, respiratory gases were collected in 150-litre Douglas bags. Immediately upon termination of the test the gases were taken to the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Department of Preventive Cardiology. There, the gases were analysed for O2, CO2, and N2 concentration with a mass spectrometer. Gas volume was measured with a Kofranyi-Michaelis gasometer. Accumulated oxygen deficit was calculated as the difference between the estimated oxygen demand for the supramaximal swimming bout and the accumulated oxygen uptake measured during the test. AOD was expressed in Litres (STPD).

Immediately after the test, subjects were asked to rest quietly, seated on the edge of the flume. A 3ml blood sample was taken five minutes after the conclusion of the swimming bout for the determination of LApeak flume. Blood was analysed for lactate concentration with a YSI 2700 biochemical analyser. LApeak was expressed as mmol L-1.

Competitive Swimming Performance Tests

Two competitive swimming performance tests, 50 and 500 yards, were performed on separate days in the Trees Hall pool at the University of Pittsburgh. The order of testing was randomised. Each test began with a 500-yard warm-up swim followed by five minutes rest or until the subjects heart rate was below 100bpm. At the end of the rest period, the subject performed either a 50 or 500-yard Freestyle swim with instructions to perform the swim with a maximal effort, as in competition. All performance swims were from a push start. All swims were hand timed and performance times were recorded to the nearest tenth of a second. Immediately after each performance swim the subject was instructed to rest quietly, seated on the edge of the pool. After five minutes of rest, a 3ml blood sample was taken by venipuncture for determination of LApeak50 (after the 50-yard swim) and LApeak500 (after the 500-yard swim). The blood samples were analysed for lactate concentration with a YSI 2700 biochemical analyser.

Statistical Analysis

Correlation analysis was used to determine the relation between … (1) peak post-exercise blood lactate (LApeakflume, LApeak50, and LApeak500) and Freestyle swimming performance (50 and 500 yards) in trained adult female swimmers, (2) AOD and Freestyle swimming performance (50 and 500 yards) in trained adult female swimmers, (3) peak post-exercise blood lactate determined experimentally in a swimming flume (LApeakflume) and LApeak measured following performance swims of 50 yards (LApeak50) and 500 yards (LApeak500), and (4) the measures of LApeak and AOD. Statistical significance was accepted at the p<0.05 level of confidence. SPSS for WindowsR statistical software was used to perform the statistical analysis.

FINDINGS

The results of the laboratory/flume tests and performance swims are presented in Table 3. To validate the "all-out" nature of the competitive performance swims, post-swim heart rates were compared with those obtained at VO2maxswim. Heart rates were 181.9 + 12.3, 175.5 + 22.9, and 177.7 + 16.8 for VO2maxswim, 50 yard and 500-yard competitive swims, respectively. Paired-samples T-tests revealed no significant difference between the heart rates for VO2maxswim and either 50 yard (p=0.404) or 500 yard (p=0.542) competitive performance swims.

Table 3. Test Results

 

Tests

Results (Mean + SD)

VO2maxswim

46.19 + 7.31 ml kg-1 min-1

50 yard Freestyle

30.37 + 1.36 sec

500 yard Freestyle

6:31 + 00:27 min:sec

LApeak50

5.88 + 2.44 mmol/L

LApeak500

7.76 + 2.29 mmol/L

LApeakflume

12.04 + 2.48 mmol/L

AOD

2.72 + 1.11L

 

Significant correlations were found between both measures of LApeak (LApeak50 and LApeakflume) and time in the 50-yard Freestyle competitive performance swim (r=-0.528, p=0.039, SEE=1.21 and r=-0.514, p=0.044, SEE=1.23, respectively). Figure 2 presents a scatter plot of the relation between LApeak50 and 50 yard competitive performance swim time. The power to predict 50-yard performance time was almost identical for LApeak50 and LApeakflume. Performance time predicted from LApeak50 (performance time = -0.295 (LApeak50) + 32.1) and LApeakflume (performance time = -0.283 (LApeakflume) + 33.775) were within 0.89 + 0.64 and 1.01 + 0.51 seconds of actual performance time, respectively. These two measures of LApeak not only correlated significantly with 50-yard performance time but with each other as well (r=0.709, p=0.005, SEE=1.81). No significant correlations were found between LApeakflume or LApeak500 and performance time in the 500 yd Freestyle performance swim (r=0.178, p=0.290 and r=0.152, p=0.318, respectively). Although LApeakflume and LApeak500 were significantly correlated with each other (r=0.721, p=0.004, SEE=1.66), neither was predictive of 500-yard performance time.

Laktat

Peak Blood Lactate (LApeak50, mmol L)

Figure 2. Relation between peak blood lactate and 50 yard competitive swim time. Solid line represents line of best fit determined by linear regression.

Accumulated oxygen deficit was significantly correlated with time in the 50 yard Freestyle performance swim (r=-0.676, p=0.016, SEE=1.12). Figure 3 presents a scatter plot of the relation between AOD and 50 yard competitive performance swim time. Performance time predicted from AOD (performance time = -0.877 (AOD) + 32.923) was within 0.80 + 0.67 seconds of actual performance time. However, AOD did not correlate with performance time in the 500 yard Freestyle swim (r=-0.379, p=0.14) or any of the measures of blood lactate (r=0.118, p=0.373, r=-0.489, p=0.076, and r=0.086, p=0.407 for LApeak50, LApeak500 and LApeak flume, respectively.

Laktat

Accumulated Oxygen Deficit (Litres)

Figure 3. Relation between accumulated oxygen deficit and 50-yard competitive swim time. Solid line represents line of best fit determined by linear regression.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to determine whether LApeak Freestyle swimming performance in trained adult female and AOD are valid indices of Freestyle swimming performance in trained adult female swimmers. Previously, both of these measures have been demonstrated to be correlated with performance in sprint and middle distance running events (11, 17, 22). To our knowledge, however, this was the first attempt to evaluate these measures as correlates of exercise performance using a swimming model. The results indicate that LApeak measured after an exhaustive/all-out swim of three minutes or less in duration is modestly predictive of 50-yard sprint performance in trained adult female swimmers. The energy required for a 50yard performance swim is supplied primarily by the anaerobic metabolic systems (12). As such, these results suggest that LApeak may be a valid index of swimming performance relying heavily on anaerobic glycolytic energy production. Further, it appears that this measurement is equally valid in a poolside or laboratory setting.

In contrast, neither of the two independent measures of peak post-exercise blood lactate (LApeak500 and LApeakflume) were predictive of 500 yard Freestyle swimming performance. Based on its correlation with 50 yard Freestyle swimming performance, LApeak may be a valid index of anaerobic power during high intensity swimming. Because middle-distance swimming relies at least in part on energy derived from anaerobic glycolysis, it would be expected that LApeak would be predictive of 500 yard Freestyle swimming performance. It has been postulated that only half of the total energy demands of the 500-yard Freestyle are provided by anaerobic metabolism (12). However, this is unsupported by controlled scientific studies. In the present study, measures of aerobic power, specifically VO2max and VO2 at blood lactate concentration of 4mmol/L, were significantly correlated with 500-yard performance time (r=-0.528, p=0.039 and r=-0.621, p=0.016, respectively). In addition, an examination of the present investigation’s subject training logs revealed that only two of 12 subjects were engaging in any type of anaerobic training. It is possible that performance in the 500 yard Freestyle, in this subject cohort, may have been even less dependent on anaerobic metabolism than previously reported. Finally, it is important to note that the measures of LApeak accounted for only approximately 27% of the variation in performance times in the 50 yard Freestyle swim, which is almost exclusively dependent on anaerobically derived energy. A possible confounding variable in the measurement of peak lactate was the timing of the blood draw. While it is generally agreed that blood lactate levels generally peak between 3 and 7 minutes post-exercise, there is considerable inter-individual variation. As such, it is possible that LApeak was not a sufficiently sensitive index to measure inter-subject differences in the anaerobic contribution to 500 yard Freestyle swimming performance in this particular cohort.

The present findings indicate that AOD measured in a swimming flume may be a valid index of high-intensity Freestyle swimming performance in trained adult female swimmers. The results indicate that AOD measured in a swimming flume, using the protocol described above, is modestly predictive of 50-yard sprint performance in trained adult female swimmers. However, as with the measures of LApeak, AOD was not correlated with performance time in the 500-yard Freestyle swim. Green et al (7) previously observed that "... performances on tasks partially determined by anaerobic capacity (or underlying mechanisms) are not always associated with a larger AOD". The previous discussion regarding the lack of a relation between the measures of LApeak and middle-distance swimming performance would seem to apply here as well. The lack of correlation between the measures of LApeak and AOD in the present study has been observed previously (2). These authors suggested the absence of a correlation was due to the presumption that measures of LApeak are partially determined by non-anaerobic metabolism, specifically lactate removal. Regardless, it is beyond the scope of the present investigation to speculate as to the reason for the lack of correlation between these two indices of anaerobic power. Future research should continue to investigate the underlying mechanisms associated with each of these measures.

In conclusion, these data suggest that measures of LApeak and AOD may be valid indices of anaerobic capacity and performance during short term/sprint Freestyle swimming events. Further, it appears that the predictive power of LApeak measured poolside is equal to that measured in a laboratory setting. The measures of LApeak and AOD were not predictive of middle-distance swimming performance in this subject cohort, possibly due to a lack of sensitivity. The measures of concentration of LApeak and AOD showed no inter-relation. As such, further research in this area should continue to focus on the underlying mechanisms associated with these two measures of anaerobic power.

Application

The measures of LApeak and AOD demonstrated small but significant correlations with 50-yard competitive swim performance. However, the relation between these measures and swimming performance also demonstrated significant inter-subject variability. In addition, the lack of correlation between the measures of LApeak and AOD leave some doubt as to the validity of these measures as indices of anaerobic power. Therefore, based on these data, it cannot be recommended that measures of LApeak or AOD be used as predictors of freestyle swimming performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the students of the Department of Health, Physical, and Recreation Education at the University of Pittsburgh that assisted in the data collection for this investigation. Without their time and devotion, this project could never have come to fruition.

References

1. Bangsbo, J., P.D. Gollnick T.E. Graham, C. Juel, B. Kiens, M. Mizuno, and B. Saltin. Anaerobic energy production and O2 deficit-debt relationship during exercise in humans. J. Physiol. 422:539-559, 1990.

2. Bangsbo J., L. Michalsik, and A. Petersen. Accumulated O2 deficit during intense exercise and muscle characteristics of elite athletes. Int. J. Sports Med. 14:207-213, 1993.

3. Bangsbo, J. Oxygen deficit: a measure of the anaerobic energy production during intense exercise? Can. J. Appl. Physiol. 21:350-363, 1996.

4. Craig, N.P., K.I. Norton, P.C. Bourdon, S.M. Woolford, T. Stanef, B. Squires, T.S. Olds, R.A. Conyers, and C.B. Walsh. Aerobic and anaerobic indices contributing to track endurance performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 67:150-158, 1993.

5. Cunningham, D.A., and J.A. Faulkner, J.A. (1969). The effect of training on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1:65-69, 1969.

6. Fujitsuka, N.T., T. Yamamoto, T. Ohkuha, M. Saito, and M. Miyamura. Peak blood lactate after short periods of treadmill running. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 48:289-296, 1982.

7. Green, S. and B. Dawson. Measurement of anaerobic capacities in humans: definitions, limitations, and unsolved problems. Sports Med. 15:312-327, 1993.

8. Houston, M.E. and J.A. Thomson. The response of endurance-adapted adults to anaerobic training. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 36:207-213, 1977.

9. Jackson A.S., M.L. Pollock, and A. Ward A. Generalized equations for predicting the body density of women. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 12:175-18 1, 1980.

10. Komi, P.V., H. Rusko, V. Vos, and V. Vihko. Anaerobic performance capacity in athletes. Acta. Physiol. Scand. 100:107-114, 1977.

11. Lacour, J.R., E. Bouvat, and J.C. Barthelemy. Post-competition blood lactate concentrations as indicators of anaerobic expenditure during 400m and 800m races. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:172-176, 1990.

12. Maglischo, E.W. Swimming Even Faster, 1st Ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing, 1995, pp.3-22.

13. Medbo, J.I., and O.M., Sejersted. Acid-base and electrolyte balance after exhausting exercise in endurance-trained and sprint-trained athletes. Acta. Physiol. Scand. 125:97-109, 1985.

14. Medbo, J.I., A.C. Mohn, I. Tabata, R. Bahr, O. Vaage, and O.M. Sejersted. Anaerobic capacity determined by maximal accumulated O2 deficit. J. Appl. Physiol. 64:50-60, 1988.

15. Medbo, J.I., and S. Burgers. Effects of training on the anaerobic capacity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 22:501-507, 1990.

16. Ohkuwa, T., Y. Kats, K. Katsumata, T. Nakao, and M. Miyamura. Blood lactate and glycerol after 400m and 3000m runs in sprint and long distance runners. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 53:213-218, 1984.

17. Ramsbottom, R., A.M. Nevill, M.E. Nevill, S. Newport, and C. Williams. Accumulated oxygen deficit and short distance running performance. J. Sports Sci. 12:447-453, 1994.

18. Saltin B. Biochemistry of Exercise VII, International Series on Sports Sciences. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics, 1990, pp.387-412.

19. Scott, C.B., F.B. Roby, T.G. Lohman, and J.C. Bunt, J.C. The maximally accumulated oxygen deficit as an indicator of anaerobic capacity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 23:618-624, 1991.

20. Sharp, R.L., D.L. Costill, W.J. Fink, and D.S. King D.S. Effects of eight weeks of bicycle ergometer sprint training on human muscle buffer capacity. Int. J. Sports Med. 7:13-17, 1986.

21. Wakayoshi, K., T. Yoshida, Y. Ikuta, Y. Mutoh, and M. Miyashita. Adaptations to six months of aerobic swim training. Int. J. Sports Med. 14:368-372, 1993.

22. Weygand, P.G., K.J. Cureton, D.S. Conley, M.A. Sloniger, and Y.l. Liu, Y.L. Peak oxygen deficit predicts sprint and middle distance track performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26:1174-1180, 1984.


 

Neuere Artikel

Weitere Artikel

Beliebte Artikel

Print Friendly, PDF & Email

Kommentar schreiben

Sicherheitscode
Aktualisieren

Registriere dich für unseren Newsletter - alle drei Tage neu!
captcha 
Copyright © 2024 Gießener SV Schwimmen. Alle Rechte vorbehalten.
Joomla! ist freie, unter der GNU/GPL-Lizenz veröffentlichte Software.

Joomla!-Debug-Konsole

Sitzung

Profil zum Laufzeitverhalten

Speichernutzung

Datenbankabfragen